INDIAN HISTORY THROUGH MAP- PART-A

(1) Adamgarh

• Adamgarh Hills is located in the Hoshangabad district in Madhya Pradesh.
• Adamgarh Hills are famous for the pre-historic rock shelters and paintings found in the hills.
• Stone age artefacts, lower palaeolithic and Meolithic implements have been excavated here.

(2) Adichanallur

• Adichanallur is an archaeological sites located on the right bank of the Tambraparani River, in the Tuticorin District of Tamil Nadu.
• The extensive urn burial site at Adichchanallur in Tuticorin District (formerly Tirunelveli) . A number of skeletons dating from around 3,800 years ago were found buried in earthenware urns.
• Bronze objects, iron objects besides thousands of potsherds.Sherds were also found with writing in Tamil Scripts(500-300 BC)
• The burials have been classified into three phases, viz., Phase I, II and III. This three-tier burial system was discovered in which earlier generations were buried in urns at 10 feet depth and recent ones above them.
• Phase I contains predominantly primary burials, while in Phases II & III, both primary and secondary burials are found.

Urn burials in Situ

• The skeletal remains inside the urns are invariably placed in crouched position. No orientation seems to have been followed. There are two examples of double burial. A potsherd with appliqué narrative(A decorative design made of one material sewn over another) scene is an important find. Good number of graffiti on pottery has been discovered.

Contents of an Urn burial: Remains of bones and burial goods in situ

• Pottery types include black and red ware, red ware and black ware.Some of the pots are painted in white. 
• Iron implements like arrowheads, spearheads and axe are found. Few copper ornaments have also been found. Rice husk and cloth impression has been found on one of the Iron sword. A potter’s kiln(industrial activity) was also exposed in the habitational site.
• Korkai the capital of the Early Pandyan Kingdom is located about 15 km from Adichanallur.

(3) Agiabir

• Agiabir is located on the left bank of river Ganga in district Mirzapur of eastern Utter Pradesh. 
• The ancient settlements extend in an area of more than one km along the river. Five periods cultural sequence from 1300 BC to 700 AD .
• Long cultural sequence extending from Narhan Phase to early medieval period.Period 1(Narhan Cultural phase):pottery BRW,black slipped ware ad red ware.Pottery showed some difference from Narhan. People lived in wattle-and-daub huts and silos used for storing grains.Agate beads, a bead making workshop,terracotta beads, microliths,bone points,copper fishhook,clay lamp.Fireplaces associated with charred animals give ida of food habits.Period 2 is pre-NBP with iron.
• The habitation of remains of period fifth belonged to the Gupta and post-Gupta times. 
• The house complex of 11 rooms with courtyard and a boundary wall found. There is two entrances this structure.
• The remains of a temple complex (the fragments of stone jambs of temples with Krishna)

(4) Agra, Fatehpur Sikri

• Sikandar Lodī, the Ruler of theDelhi Sultanate founded Agra in the year 1504.
• The golden age of the city began with the Mughals. It was known then as Akbarabād and remained the capital of the Mughal Empire under the Emperors Akbar, Jahāngīr and Shāh Jahān. Shāh Jahān later shifted his capital to Shāhjahānabād in the year 1689.
• Babar laid out the first formal Persian garden on the banks of river Yamuna. The garden is called the Arām Bāgh.Akbar raised the towering ramparts of the Great Red Fort, besides making Agra a center for learning, arts, commerce and religion. 
• Akbar also built a new city on the outskirts of Akbarabād called Fatehpūr Sikrī.His son Jahāngīr had a love of gardens and flora and fauna and laid many gardens inside the Red Fort. Shāh Jahān, known for his keen interest in architecture, gave Akbarabād the Tāj Mahal. Built in loving memory of his wife Mumtāz Mahal, the mausoleum was completed in 1653.
• Shāh Jahān later shifted the capital to Delhi during his reign, but his son Aurangzeb moved the capital back to Akbarabād.
• Akbarabād remained the capital of India during the rule of Aurangzeb until he shifted it toAurangabad in the Deccan in 1653. After the decline of the Mughal Empire, the city came under the influence of Marathas and was called Agra, before falling into the hands of theBritish Raj in 1803.

(5) Ahar

Ahar-Banas Culture Sites---Red:Ahar,Blue:Balthal,Green:Gilund,Black:Ojiyana

• 
• The Ahar culture or Banas culture is a Chalcolithic culture of southeastern Rajasthan lasting from 3000 to 1500 BCE, contemporary and adjacent to the Indus Valley Civilization. Situated along the Banas and Berach Rivers, the Ahar-Banas people were exploiting the copper ores of the Aravalli Range to make axes and other artefacts. They were sustained on a number of crops, including wheat and barley.
• Over 90 sites of Ahar or Banas culture have been identified in south-east Rajasthan in the Banas and berach river systems(Between Udaipur and jaipur).Some sites are also in Malwa plateau, MP. Ahar, Gilund, Balathal are three excavated sites. Sites of Ahar culture show the use of a great variety of raw materials including steatite,shell,agate,jasper,lapis lazuli,copper,blonze. Shell objects were locally made but shell came from gujarat coast.The discovery of carnelian beads, a lapiz lazuli bead, and Rangpur type lustrous red ware suggests connection with harappan sites in Gujarat.
• Typical Ahar pottery is a Black-and-Red ware (BRW) with linear and dotted designs painted on it in white pigment and has limited range of shapes, which include bowls, bowls-on-stands, elongated vases and globular vases. 
• The Ahar culture also had equally distinctive brightly slipped Red Ware, a Tan ware, ceramics in Burnished Black that were incised Thin Red ware, as well as incised and otherwise decorated Gray ware fabrics.
• The pottery had a black top and reddish bottom, with paintings in white on the black surface. Because of these distinctive features, Ahar, was called the "black and red ware culture".The pottery used by the inhabitants of Ahar for drinking and eating.
• Discoveries at Gilund were brdly similar to Ahar.

 Clockwise from top: Reserve Slipped ware, Tan ware ,Thick Red Slipped ware, Buff ware, Black and Red Ware and Thin Red Slipped ware

(6) Ahichchatra

• Ahichatra was the ancient capital of Northern Panchala,The remains of this city has been discovered near Ramnagar village of Bareilly district in Uttar Pradesh. 
• A brick fortification and continuity of occupation from a period before 600 BCE to 1100 CE.
• Four cultural periods named as Period I to IV starting from OCP. It was first inhabited by the middle of the second millennium BC with Ochre Coloured Pottery culture people, followed by Black and Red Ware culture. 
• Around 1000 BC, it became one of the largest Painted Grey Ware culture sites.
• PGW followed by NBPW up to Kusana Gupta period.

(7) Ahmadnagar

• Ahmednagar was founded in 1490 by Ahmad Nizam Shah on the site of a more ancient city, Bhingar. With the breakup of the Bahmani Sultanate, Ahmad established a new sultanate in Ahmednagar, also known as Nizam Shahi dynasty.
• It lasted until its conquest by Mughal emperor Shah Jahan in 1636. Aurangzeb died in Ahmednagar and his burial at (khultabad) near Aurangabad in 1707, and a small monument marks the site.
• Maharani Ahilyabai Holkar was born on 31 May 1725 in Ahmednagar district.
• In 1759, the Peshwa of the Marathas obtained possession of the place from Nizam of Hyderabad and in 1795 it was ceded by the Peshwa to the Maratha chief Daulat Rao Sindhia. Ahmednagar was invaded by a British force under General Wellesley and captured. It was afterwards restored to the Marathas, but again came into the possession of the British in 1817, according to the terms of the Treaty of Poona.

(8) Ahmedabad /Ahmadabad

• The area around Ahmedabad has been inhabited since the 11th century, when it was known as Ashaval or Ashapalli.At that time, Karandev I, the Solanki ruler of Anhilwara (modern Patan), waged a successful war against the Bhil king of Ashaval, and established a city called Karnavati on the banks of the Sabarmati. 
• Solanki rule lasted until the 13th century, when Gujarat came under the control of the Vaghela dynasty of Dholka. 
• Gujarat subsequently came under the control of the Delhi Sultanate in the 14th century. However, by the earlier 15th century, the local governor Zafar Khan Muzaffar established his independence from the Delhi Sultanate and crowned himself Sultan of Gujarat as Muzaffar Shah I, thereby founding the Muzaffarid dynasty. This area finally came under the control of his grandson Sultan Ahmed Shah in 1411 A.D. who for a new capital city and laid the foundation of a new walled city near Karnavati and named it Ahmedabad.
• In 1487, Mahmud Begada, the grandson of Ahmed Shah, fortified the city. 
• In 1535 Humayun briefly occupied Ahmedabad after capturing Champaner when the ruler of Gujarat, Bahadur Shah, fled to Diu.Ahmedabad was then reoccupied by the Muzaffarid dynasty until 1573 when Gujarat was conquered by Akbar.
• During the Mughal reign, Ahmedabad became one of the Empire's thriving centres of trade, mainly in textiles, which were exported as far as Europe. Shahjahan sponsored the construction of the Moti Shahi Mahal in Shahibaug.
• Ahmedabad remained the provincial headquarters of the Mughals until 1758, when they surrendered the city to the Marathas.

(9) Ajmer

• Ajmer is surrounded by the Aravalli Mountains. It is a pilgrimage centre for the shrine of the Sufi Saint Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti and is also the base for visiting Pushkar (11 km), an ancient Hindu pilgrimage city, famous for the temple of Brahma.
• Ajmer (Ajaya meru meaning "Invincible Spine") was founded in the late 7th century A.D. by Ajayraj Singh Chauhan. Chauhan clan is a branch of Chechi Gurjars. The Chauhan dynasty ruled Ajmer in spite of repeated invasions by Turkic Muslim armies from Central Asia. 
• Ajmer was conquered by Muhammad of Ghor in 1193. 
• Ajmer regained independence under the ruler of Mewar in 1365. 
• In 1509, control of Ajmer was disputed between the Maharajas of Mewar and Marwar until it was conquered by the Marwar in 1532. 
• In 1553, the state was ruled by the Hindu Emperor Hem Chandra Vikramaditya, popularly known as Hemu, who was killed in 1556 in the Second Battle of Panipat. The city was conquered by the Mughal emperor Akbar in 1559. In the early 1700s century, control passed to the Marathas.

(10) Akhnur

• Akhnoor is an archeological site at a distance of 28 km from Jammu.The town is located on the banks of the Chenab River.
• Akhnoor was one of the last bastion of the Harappan Civilization and Manda,Akhnoor is the northern most site of the Harrappan Civilisation. Terracotta figures and other anthropological objects belonging to the later Harrappan period have been found.
• Excavations at Ambaran-Pamberwan sites have proved that the place was a prominent abode of Buddhism during the Kushan period and Gupta period. Apart from an ancient Stupa, life sized Terracotta busts of Buddha and coins belonging to those periods were also excavated from the sites.
• Buddhist relics from the Pre-Kushan reign and silver caskets, gold and silver leaves, pearls, corals and three copper coins from the Gupta period are found.
• The location of the Stupas is such that it lies on the ancient routes from Pataliputra to Taxila.
• Hinduism:Trimurti idol made up of a single stone found at Ambarran Village.

(11) Alamgirpur

• Alamgirpur is an archeological site of the Indus Valley Civilization located in Meerut district, Uttar Pradesh.
• It is the eastern most site of the civilization.This site was also called Parasaram-ka-khera. 
• Typical Harappan pottery was found and the complex itself appeared to be a pottery workshop. 
• Ceramic items found included roof tiles, dishes, cups,cubicle dice, beads,terrecotta cakes, carts and figurines of a humped bull and a snake.There were also beads and possibly ear studs made of steatite paste, faience, glass, carnelian, quartz, agate and black jasper. A broken blade made of copper was found.
• A small terrecotta bead-like structure was coated with gold.
• Evidence of cloth is found; yarn used for cloth looked fairly fine and weaving method used is "plain weave".
• Four periods of Alamgirpur respectively belonged to (I) Harappan, (II) Painted Grey Ware (III) Early historical and (IV) Late Medieval Period.

(12) Allahabad (Prayag) ,Kaushambi

   

• Excavations have revealed Northern Black Polished Ware dating to 600–700 BCE.
• When the Aryans first settled in what they called the Āryāvarta (or Madhyadesha), Prayag (then Kaushambi) was an important part of their territory.The Kurus, rulers of Hastinapur (near Delhi), established the town of Kaushambi near Prayag.They shifted their capital to Kaushambi when Hastinapur was destroyed by floods.
• The Doab region, which includes Allahabad, was controlled by a succession of empires and dynasties.The area became part of the Mauryan and Gupta Empires from the east and the Kushan Empire from the west before being governed by Kannauj during the 15th century.
• Prayag became a part of the Delhi Sultanate when it was annexed byMohammad Ghori in 1193.Later, the Mughals took over. Akbar built a fort on the banks of the sangam and renamed the settlement Ilāhābād (Persian for "place of a god") in 1575.

(13) Alwar

• Maharaja Alaghraj, second son of Maharaja Kakil of Amer (old seat of Jaipur state) ruled the area in the eleventh century and his territory extended up to the present city of Alwar. He founded the city of Alwar.
• The princely state of Alwar was ruled by Pratap Singh, a Rajput of the Kachwaha lineage, in 1770. 

(14) Amaravati

• In Guntur District of Andhra Pradesh
• The recorded history of Amaravati and nearby Dharanikota dates to 2nd century BCE.It was the capital of Satavahanas (2nd century BCE to 3rd century CE). 
• After the decline of Satavahanas, Andhra Ikshvakus and later Pallava kings ruled Krishna river valley. Subsequently, Eastern Chalukyas and Telugu Cholas held sway over the region. 
• The stupa: The region between Krishna and Godavari rivers was an important place for Buddhism from the 2nd century BCE with Amaravati being one of them. Buddhist stupa was built during the reign of Ashoka in 200 BCE, was carved with panels that tells the story of Buddha. During the period of the decline of Buddhism, this stupa was also neglected. The stupa is related to the Vajrayana teachings of Kalachakra, still practiced today in Tibetan Buddhism.
• Ancient art: Amaravati art was as one of the three major styles or schools of ancient Indian art, the other two being the Gandhara style and the Mathura style. Some of the Buddhist sculptures of Amaravati betray a Greco-Roman influence that was the direct result of the close trade and diplomatic contacts between South India and the ancient Romans. Amaravati has itself yielded a few Roman coins. 
• Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang visited Amaravati in 640 CE, He wrote a glorious account of the place, Viharas and monasteries that existed.
• Amaravati School: A different type of art form evolved and flourished for nearly six centuries commencing from 200-100 BC. Patronized first by the Satavahanas and later by the Ikshvakus .With its beginning in 3rd century BC the Amaravati unfolds its chapters through the galaxy of sculptural wealth that once adorned the Mahachaitya the majestic monument of the Buddhists situated here.

(15) Amarkot (Umarkot)

• It is in Sindh, Pakistan. Amarkot was the capital of Greater Sindh Province, including some parts of the present Rajasthan.This province was ruled by one of the subclan of Paramara Rajputs . 
• Mughal king Akbar was born in Umerkot when his father Humayun fled from military defeat at the hands of Sher Shah Suri. Rana Prasad, a Hindu Sodha Rajput ruler of Amarkot, gave refuge to Humayun.
• Umerkot is one of the few provinces that has never been conquered by any invader, including Mughals.

(16) Amber/Amer ( Now Jaipur)

• Founded by Meena Raja Alan Singh (from Chanda clan of Meenas), Amer was a flourishing settlement dating as far back as 967 A.D. 
• Around 1037 A.D., Amer was conquered by the Kachwaha clan of Rajputs. Much of the present structure known as Amer Fort is actually the palace built by Raja Man Singh who ruled from 1590 - 1614 A.D. The palace contains several buildings, such as the Diwan-i-Khas, and the elaborately painted Ganesh Poll built by Mirza Raja Jai Singh I (Man Singh I's grandson).
• The old and original fort of Amer, dating from earlier Rajas is known in the present day as Jaigarh Fort
• Amer was capital of the Kachwahas until 1727 when the ruler of Amer Sawai Jai Singh II founded a capital Jainagara (Jaipur), named after him, about nine kilometers south of Amer. 

(17) Amarkantak

• Amarkantak is a pilgrim town Anuppur District in MP. Also called "Teerthraj" (the king of pilgrimages), Amarkantak region is the meeting point of the Vindhyas and the Satpuras, with the Maikal Hills being the fulcrum. This is where the Narmada River, the Son River and Johila River emerge.
• Adi Shankarachrya was born in 788 and consecrated on the banks of Narmada River. He founded Pataleshwar Mahadev in Amarkantak at the origin of Narmada. 
• The Kalchuri Maharaja Karnadeva (1042–1072 AD) had constructed temples at Surajkund.

(18) Amri

• Amri is an ancient settlement in Sindh province of Pakistan.The site is located south of Mohenjo Daro about 110 kilometres north of Hyderabad.
• Pre-Harappan stage:The earliest phase was a fortified town which flourished from 3600 to 3300 BC, and belonged to the Pre-Harappan stage of the Indus Valley Civilization.
• Amri is close to Balochistan where development of earlier farming communities from 6000BC to 4000BC ultimately led to urbanization.
• The ancient mounds of 8 hectares on the west bank of Indus River have been extensively excavated. The pottery discovered here had its own characteristics and known as Amri Ware. Like other Pre Harappa towns, no writings were found at this site. There is evidence of widespread fire at the town around 2500BC.
• Later phases: In period II (2750-2450 BC), more and more elements of the Indus Valley culture appear.
• Period III (2450-1900 BC) belongs almost entirely to Indus Valley culture.
• Period IV (1900-1300 BC) is marked by the mingling of cultural layers. Elements of the Jhukar culture appear, and co-exist with the last phase of the Indus Valley culture.Later, the elements of the Jhangar culture also appear.
• Based on the evidence from this site, it is believed that the Indus culture was probably not developed directly from the Amri culture. 

(19) Amritsar

• Amritsar was named after the lake founded by the fourth Sikh Guru Ram Das in 1574. Earlier, Guru Ram Das had begun building Santokhsar Sarovar.
• It is home to the Harmandir Sahib (Golden Temple), the spiritual and cultural center for the Sikh religion.The city also houses the Sikh temporal and political authority, Akal Takht, as well as the Sikh Parliament.
• The city lies on the main Grand Trunk Road (GT Road) from Delhi to Amritsar connecting to Lahore in Pakistan.

(20) Anangpur

• It is in Faridabad district and alongwith Mehrauli and Tugluqabad it constitutes the triangle of historical importance in Delhi. Tugluqabad was the Centre of Delhi during the reign of Mohd Bin Tagluq and Mehrauli is believed to be the place where the first Delhi was created. Anangpur was founded by Raja Anangpal and Prithvi Raj Chauhan lived here.
• The people of the village are helping in creating a replica of Hariparbat on one of the hillocks on the boundary of the village with a temple of goddess Sharika on the top, as a token of solidarity with the displaced Kashmiri Pandits.

(21) Anegondi /Anegundi

• Pre-historic: Several Neolithic dwellings still bear paintings. This is the rare human settlement where we will find traces of Microlithic, Megalithic and Neolithic age of human life at one same spot. The nearest Pre-historic sites are Hire Benekal, Chikkarampur, Mallapur, Venkatapur and Anjanahalli. Pre-historic rock shelters and paintings are found in Tungabhadra river valley.
• Rock art: The boulders with rock art, a rock with some red and white markings had figures of human and bull. on another boulder there is a circular diagram like sun and moon and with some symbolism. Actually the rock painting are belonged to Iron Age, date back to 1500 BC and the faded circular painting a very rare depiction of a megalithic style of burial, also includes a human body in the middle surrounded by a stone circle and burial goods. The site of megalithic dolmens located up in the hills, about five to seven feet high sheet rocks forms four walls and another rock sheet used as roof (Neolithic period), it is about 10 km away from Anegundi, the Neolithic dwellings. About 1.5 km from Anegundi, there are rock shelters and paintings.
• Aneguni in Kannada means Elephant Gorge, it is older than Hampi, in fact the mother kingdom (cradle city of Vijayanagara). Anegundi history dates back to 3rd BC century was under Ashoka Empire. Anegundi was ruled by various dynasties like Shatavahanas, Kadambas, Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas, Delhi Sultanate, Vijayanagara Empire and Bahamanis.
• The first capital of Vijayanagar Empire. In 1334, Deva Raya the Chief Minister of Anegundi became ruler of Anegundi. When Delhi Sultans invaded Warangal, Harihara and Bukka escaped and came to Anegundi, later founded the Vijayanagar Empire at Hampi. 
• During 16th, 17th and 18th centuries, Anegundi was ruled by Bijapur Sultans, Moghuls, Marathas and Tipu Sultan.
• Anegundi has Fort with a Durga temple and a Ganesha cave temple. Vijayanagar kings they use to pray before every battle at Durga temple, then they visit Pampa Sarovar and Lakshmi temple.

(22) Anga

• Anga was a kingdom that flourished on the eastern Indian subcontinent in the 6th century BCE until taken over by Magadha in the same century. Counted among the "sixteen great nations" in Buddhist texts like the Anguttara Nikaya, Anga also finds mention in the Jain Vyakhyaprajnapti’s list of ancient janapadas.
• Between the Vatsas and the realm of Anga, lived the Magadhas. A great struggle went on between the Angas and its eastern neighbors. Anga had initially succeeded in annexing the Magadhas, and thus its borders extended to the kingdom of Matsya country.This success of Angas did not last long. About the middle of 6th century BC, Bimbisara, the crown prince of Magadha had killed Brahmadatta, the last independent king of Anga and seized Champa. Thenceforth, Anga became an integral part of growing Magadha empire .
• The capital of Anga was Champa (Campā), located on the right bank of river Ganges near its junction with river Champa. Bhagalpur in Bihar, usually identified as the site of Champa, still has two villages called Champa-nagara and Champa-pura

(23) Angul

• The temple of Budhi Thakurani and Jagannath Temple is situated here.

(24) Ambari (See location of Guwahati in Part-G)

• Located North West of Guwahati, it is a site for important archaeological excavations related to ancient Assam.

(25) Ambek

(26) Anhilwad / Patan / Lalitpatan:

• Patan, an ancient fortified town, was founded in 745 AD by Vanraj Chavda, of the Chavda Kingdom. He named the city Anhilpur Patan or "Anhilwad Patan"
• Later Mulraj, the adopted son of last Chavda king, established Solanki dynasty. He successfully expanded kingdom to west. Solanki rule cover Saurashtra and Kutch in the West, Lata in the South, Malwa in the East and Southern Rajasthan in the North at its greatest period. 
• When Muhammad Ghori had attempted to conquer Gujarat, the forces of Mularaja II, then the king of Patan, a mere boy-ruler, led by his heroic mother Naikidevi, inflicted such a crushing and conclusive defeat on him that he never again entered India through Gujarat. 
• Muhammed's general and later Sultan of Delhi Qutb-ud-din Aybak sacked the city between 1200 and 1210, and it was destroyed by the Alladin Khilji in 1298.
• The modern town of Patan later sprung up near the ruins of Anhilwara. During 1304 to 1411, first Patan was the Suba headquarter of Delhi Sultanate and then capital city of Gujarat Sultanate after the collapse of the Delhi Sultanate at the end of the fourteenth century. A new Fort was built by these Subas. In 1411, Sultan Ahmed Shah moved the capital to Ahmedabad.
• Rani ki vav : During the period of the Solanki dynasty, the stepwell called the Rani ki vav (Queen’s step well) was constructed. It was built by Udaymati in memory of her husband, Bhimdev I (1022-1063). It was one of the largest and the most sumptuous structures of its type. There is also a small Gate below the last step of the step well which has a 30 kilometre tunnel built which leads to the town of Sidhpur near Patan. It was used as an escape gateway for king who built the step well in the times of defeat. Most of the sculpture is in devotion to Vishnu, in the forms of his Avatars (Krishna, Rama and others). It was included in the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites on 22 June 2014.

(27) Anupa (same location as Masishmati (see Avanti below))

• Anupa, (literally, watery tract) is an ancient Indian region roughly corresponds to the areas around ancient Mahsihmati city.
• The Nasik cave inscription of Gautami Balashri claims that her son Gautamiputra Satakarni's dominion included Anupa.
• The Junagarh rock inscription of Rudradaman I mentions Anupa as a part of his kingdom.
• A number of copper-plate grants discovered from this region (Shirpur, Bagh and Manavar in Dhar district) are issued by a family bearing the title, Maharaja. They recognized the suzerainty of certain emperors bearing the title, Paramabhattaraka (probably the Imperial Guptas).
• Two copper plate grants found from Barwani and the Bagh Caves are issued by a ruler, Subandhu, whose capital was Mahishmati. The Badwani plate is dated in the year 167 of an unspecified era.

(28) Anuradhapura

• Ashoka sent his son Mahinda, to the island of Lanka, which was also known as “Sinhalé”. According to Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa, Thera Mahinda came to Sri Lanka from India on the full moon day of the month of Poson (June) and met King Devanampiya Tissa and the people, and preached the doctrine 236 years after the passing away of the Buddha
• This period is believed to extend from 250 to 210 BC. This is the point at which a kingship began and a civilization developed based on Buddhism.
• With the introduction of Buddhism, the city Anuradhapura gained more prominence and the great building era began.
• During the late Anuradhapura period, the royal family and nobility of Sri Lanka strongly supported Buddhism. As such, they frequently commissioned works of art and donated these items to Buddhist temples. In return, the temple and local Buddhist community supported the king's rule. Art works featuring depictions of Avalokitesvara, the Bodhisattva of Mercy and Compassion, became increasing popular.

(29) Aphsad

• Besides the Imperial Guptas, there was another line of the Guptas, who had been dominating the eastern parts of Malwa. They are referred to in the Aphsad inscription of Adityasena Gupta. The Gupta kings, mentioned in the Aphsad inscription, were rulers of Magadha. The locality of the Aphsad inscription itself indicates that the centre of Adityasena's activities was transferred from Malwa to Magadha. Aphsad is situated in Gaya district, in Bihar.
• The Aphsad inscription gives the genealogy of those Gupta kings, but does not mention the country where they had established their sovereignty.

(30) Arikamedu

• Arikamedu is an archaeological site in Puducherry.Arikamedu - 'Arikan-medu or Poduke' which literally means, 'eroding mound'. 
• Roman lamps, glassware and gems have also been found at the site.
• Arikamedu was a Tamil fishing village which was formerly a major Chola port dedicated to bead making and trading with Roman traders.Various Roman artifacts, such as a large number of amphorae bearing the mark of Roman potter schools have been found at the site, supporting the view on an ancient trade between Rome and the ancient Tamil country.
• Arikamedu is known to have been inhabited since before the 1st century CE.

(31) Asirgarh

• Asirgarh Qila is situated in the Satpura Range, about 20 km north of the city of Burhanpur, in Madhya Pradesh
• Because the fortress commands a pass through the Satpuras connecting the valleys of the Narmada and Tapti rivers, one of the most important routes from northern India to the Deccan,it was known as the "key to the Deccan". 
• During Mughal Era, it was considered that Deccan starts from here: the empire from Asirgarh to Delhi was considered as Hindustan. 
• The fort was built by Asa Ahir of the Ahir dynasty.
• In 1536, Humayun, after his conquest of Gujarat, had visited Burhanpur and Asirgarh, travelling via Baroda, Broach (Bharuch) and Surat. 
• Raja Ali Khan (1576–1596), also known as Adil Shah, was asked to submit to Akbar, when the latter had sent an expedition to Khandesh, in the summer of 1577 A.D. The former pledged suzerainty to Akbar. This was a significant achievement of the Mughals, for Khandesh was used as a base for the future conquest of the Deccan. 
• Raja Ali Khan constructed many buildings: Jama Masjid in the upper portion of the fort of Asir in 1588, Jama Masjid at Burhanpur in 1590, Idgah at Asir, mausoleums and serai at Burhanpur, and serai and a mosque at Zainabad.
• Bahadur Khan (1596–1600), successor of Raja Ali Khan, declared his independence and refused to pay homage to Akbar, which enraged Akbar, who marched towards Burhanpur in 1599 and occupied the city on 8 April 1600 without opposition.

(32) Assaka (Ashmaka)

Red:Potali/Bodhan, Green: Koti Lingala

• Assaka (Sanskrit: Ashmaka, Pali: Assaka),on the banks of the Godavari river,  was a region of ancient India (700–300 BCE). It was one of sixteen mahajanapadas in the 6th century BCE, mentioned in the Buddhist text Anguttara Nikaya.
• It was the only Mahajanapada situated to the south of the Vindhya Range, and was in Dakshinapatha. It corresponds to districts Nizamabad and parts of Adilabad in Telangana and Nanded, Yavatmal in Maharashtra. 
• Kotilingala, Telangana was the capital of this janapada.
• Ashmaka is also identified as Assaka and Asvakas in Buddhist literature and GathaSaptashati of king Hāla. Ashmaka is derived from Sanskrit word "Ashma" which means Stone or Gem: In fact one finds thousands of hillocks and stones in this region
• Another capital was Potali, or Podana identified as Bodhan in Nizamabad district in Telangana. A ruler of Assaka, Brahmadatta who ruled from Potali.

(33) Atrajikhera

• Black and Red Ware(black coloured inside the near rim on outside and red colour, over the rest of the body.) Painted Gray Ware (wheel-made,Painted in black and deep chocolocate colour) in western UP.

(34) Antichak (Vikramshila)

• The remains of Vikramshila Mahavihar/University, founded by the King Dharmpal (770-810A.D.) of Pala dynasty has been found in the excavation of village Antichak in district Bhagalpur of Bihar (50 kms. east from Bhagalpur).
• Vikramasila was one of the largest Buddhist universities having more than hundred teachers and about one thousand students. It produced eminent scholars who were often invited by foreign countries to spread Buddhist learning, culture and religion. The most distinguished and eminent among all was Atisa Dipankara, the founder of Lamaism in Tibet. Subjects like theology, philosophy, grammar, metaphysics, logic etc. were taught here but the most important branch of learning was tantrism.
• The main stupa built for the purpose of worship is a brick structure laid in mud mortar and stands in the centre of the square monastery. A rectangular structure identified as library building.
• The architecture of the stupa and the themes of terracotta plaques of Vikramasila Mahavihara are comparable to the contemporary Somapura Mahavihara, Paharpur (Bangladesh).
• A large number of antiquities of terracotta, stone, iron copper, gold, silver, bronze, ivory, bone and shell have yielded in course of excavations. 
• A large number of sculptures of Buddha, Bodhisattva, Maitreya, Manjusri, Marichi, Mahakala, Tara, Jambhala, Aparajita, Sadakshari Avalokiteshwara, Mahachanda Rosana, Navagraha, Vishnu, Siva, Uma-Maheshwara, Surya, Mahisasurmardini, Kaumari, Chamunda etc. in stone and Buddha, Maitrya, Vajrapani, Avalokiteshwara, Lokeshwara etc. in bronze are noteworthy.

(35) Attirampakkam

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• Palaeolithic site. 
• Characterised as a type-site of the Acheulian handaxe-based 'Madras Industries'. 
• Situated in the Kortallayar river basin, Tamil Nadu, north west of chennai, Attirampakkam is one of numerous Lower and Middle Palaeolithic sites in the region.
• Excavations have revealed a multicultural site with stratified Lower, Middle and Upper Palaeolithic deposits .The presence of Acheulian artefacts in clay beds, indicative of a palaeo flood plain situation, represents a new ecological habitat to be identified in the Indian Palaeolithic. Acheulian artefacts, mainly handaxes, are of quartzites, which are not available locally. 
• Microliths, medieval potsherds and bricks have been noted on the surface.
• The discovery of three fossil teeth is significant, as fossils are rare at Indian Lower and Middle Palaeolithic sites. These indicate at least three different fossil species suggestive of an open and wet landscape.
• Attirampakkam is unique in providing an opportunity to study transitions through time, and changing hominid adaptive strategies over the Pleistocene, with assemblages preserved in a largely primary context.

(36) Attock

• Gandhara was a historic region situated the middle Indus River, the region had Takshashila and Peshawar as its chief cities. It was conquered by the Persian Empire and later in 327 BC by Alexander the Great. The region occupied by Chandragupta,founder of the Maurya empire, in the late 4th century BC, and under Ashoka was converted in the mid-3rd century BC to Buddhism. 
• It was part of Bactria from the late 3rd century to the 1st century BC. Under the Kushan dynasty (1st century–3rd century AD), and especially under Kanishka, Gandhara developed a noted school of sculpture, consisting mainly of images of Buddha and reliefs representing scenes from Buddhist texts, but with marked Greco-Roman elements of style. 
• The art form flourished in Gandhara until the 5th century, when the region was conquered by the Huns.The Indo-Greek kings held the country after him, being at last ousted (about 80 B.C.) by the Indo­-Scythians. 
• When Hiuen Tsang, the most famous Chinese pilgrim, visited the Attock district in A.D., 630 and again in A.D., 643, he reported that Buddhism was declining in the region.
• In the early 11th century, Sultan Mahmud Ghaznavi launched seventeen expeditions into South Asia. In 1001, he defeated Raja Jayapala of the Hindu Shahi Dynasty of Gandhara in the Battle of Peshawar and marched further into Peshawar and, in 1005, made it the center for his empire. Attock became part of Ghaznavid Empire.
• The Attock fort was completed in 1583 under the supervision a minister of Emperor Akbar.

(37) Aurangabad

• Aurangabad is named after the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb. 
• The city is a tourism hub, surrounded by many historical monuments, including the Ajanta Caves and Ellora Caves, which are UNESCO World Heritage Sites, as well as Bibi Ka Maqbara. Aurangabad was declared "Tourism Capital of Maharashtra".
• Khadki was the original name of the village which was made a capital city by Malik Ambar, the Prime Minister of Murtaza Nizam, Shah of Ahmadnagar.Khadki grew into a populous and imposing city. Malik Ambar was succeeded by his son Fateh Khan, who changed the name of Khadki to Fatehnagar. 
• With the capture of Daulatabad by the imperial troops in 1633, the Nizam Shahi dominions, including Fatehnagar, came under the possession of the Mughals.
• In 1653 when Mughal prince Aurangzeb was appointed the viceroy of the Deccan for the second time, he made Fatehnagar his capital and renamed it Aurangabad. 

(38) Avanti

Ujjaini in Red and Mahishmati in Green

• By the 6th century BC, Mahajanpada Avanti(roughly corresponded to the present day Malwa region)is mentioned in Buddhist literature as one of the four great powers along with Vatsa, Kosala and Magadha.
• Avanti was divided into two parts by the Vindhyas, the northern part had its capital at Ujjayini and the southern part had its centre at Mahishmati(or Maheshwar,on the north bank of the Narmada River).
• Ujjain lay on the main trade route between North India and Deccan going from Mathura via Ujjain to Mahismati (Maheshwar) on the Narmada, and onto Paithan on the Godavari, western Asia and the West. The Northern black polished ware found their way to the northern Deccan from the Gangetic plains through Ujjain.
• Pradyota was contemporary to Buddha. He was also known as Chandapradyota Mahasena. Pradyota captured the Vatsa king Udayana.
• Avanti was defeated by Shishunaga, the king of Magadha.
• It became part of the Magadha empire during the rule of the Shaishunaga and the Nanda dynasties of Magadha. 
• During the Mauryan dynastyrule, Avanti became the Avantirāṭṭha with its capital at Ujjayini.
• The Junagarh Rock inscription of Rudradaman I (150 CE) mentions Pushyagupta as the governor of the western province during the reign of Chandragupta Maurya.During the reign of the next ruler Bindusara, prince Ashoka was the provincial governor.

(39) Avantipur

• In Pulwama district of J&K, Awantipora has a number of ancient Hindu temples built by King Awanti Varman (AD 855- 883) when he chose the site as his capital. 
• Avantishwar temple, dedicated to Siva on the banks of the River Jhelum (Vitasta). Less than a kilometre away is Avantiswamin temple dedicated to Vishnu. The two temples are quite similar structurally. The walls of the entrance are ornamented with sculptured reliefs both internally and externally.
• The ruins of temples constructed by Lalitaditya, the Brahmin emperor of Kashmir, are also located in Awantipora.

(40) Ayodhya (Saket)

• On the right bank of the river Sarayu, 6 km from Faizabad.
• In post Mauryan period, Ayodhya used to be the capital of the ancient Mahajanpada Kosala (north-west of Magadha).Its  original capital was at Savatthi (Sravasti), about 60 miles north of modern Ayodhya.
• Kosala was ultimately merged into Magadha.
• A Buddhist text, the Majjhima Nikaya mentions Buddha as a Kosalan and Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara of Jainism taught in Kosala. 
• In the time of king Mahakosala, the conquered neighboring kingdom of Kashi had become an integral part of the Kosala kingdom. Mahakosala was succeeded by his son Pasenadi (Prasenajit). He was a follower of Buddha.

(41) Aihole

Blue: Pattadakal, Green: Badami, Red: Aihole

• Aihoḷe is in the Bagalkot district of Karnataka. It is known for Chalukyan architecture, with about 125 stone temples dating from 5th century CE. It lies to the east of Pattadakal, along the Malaprabha River, while Badami is to the west of both.
• It was established in 450 CE as first capital of Chalukya.Aihoḷe has been described as one of the cradles of temple architecture. Some brick structures of pre-Chalukyan times have also been excavated.
• Pulakesi I, one of the greatest rulers of this dynasty, moved the capital to Badami nearby  then known as Vatapi. It is from these temples that the Chalukyas gained their experience and went on to build the great temples of Pattadakal. The first phase of temple building in Aihole dates back to the 6th century CE, the second phase up to the 12th century CE.

Important temples at Aihole

• , Jain temple, Meguti temple, Rock-cut Jain Basadi.
• Durga temple: Very photogenic. It is apsidal in plan, along the lines of a Buddhist chaitya. 7th-8th Century.
• Lad khan temple: The oldest temple at Aihole dating back to the fifth century.A shrine with two mantapas in front of it. The shrine bears a Shiva lingam.
• Ravana Phadi cave is one of the oldest rock cut temples in Aihole(6th century), with a rectangular shrine, with two mantapas. There is a Shivalinga in the inner room or sanctum sanctorum.

• 6th century two storied Buddhist Chaitya Cave temple which is partly rock-cut structure.
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• Huchimalli (gudi) temple, built in the 7th century shows an evolution in the temple plan, as it shows an ardhamantapa annexed to the main shrine.The sanctum here has a pradakshinapatha and its external walls contain lattices. The sanctum has a northern style rekhanagara tower. 
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• Galaganatha group temples is one of nearly thirty temples on the bank of the Malaprabha River. The main shrine of the Galaganatha temple enshrining Shiva.

• A group of three temples is referred to as the Kontigudi group of temples. One of these is the Lad Khan temple, another the Huchiappayya gudi temple and the Huchiappayya math. Huchappayya (gudi) temple has a curvilinear tower (shikhara) over the sanctum (unlike the Lad Khan temple). The interior of the temple has beautiful carvings
• Jain cave temple at the entrance of the Aihole (from Pattadakal/Badami) on the banks of Mallaprabha river .It is similar to Ravana Phadi cave, there are inscriptions on rock in old Kannada near the cave.

Aihole inscription:

• The Badami Chalukyas King Pulakeshi II (610–642 A.D.) was a follower of Vaishnavism. The inscription of Ravikirti, his court poet, is a eulogy of the Pulakeshi II and is available at the Meguti temple. It is dated 634 CE and is written in Sanskrit language and old Kannada script. 
• The Aihole inscription describes the achievements of Pulakeshi II and his victory against King Harshavardhana.
• Aihole inscription of Pulakesin II mentioned the conflict of the Pallavas and Chalukya before the campaign of Pulakesin II against the Pallavas. 
• Inscription which prepared by Pulakeshi II (634 AD) found in the Jain Temple at Aihole. According to the Aihole inscription of Pulakeshin II, a civil war between Mangalesha and Pulakeshin II, due to Mangalesa's attempt to secure the succession for his own son, which was the end of Mangalesha's reign.
• In inscription of Amoghavarsha I found at Aihole, mentioned about his new administration.

Early Chalukya style of architecture:

• Aihole, was the cradle of ancient Hindu temple architecture.It has more than 70 temples. The experimentation with different styles was undertaken by the artisans. The artisans worked on the rocks to create the earliest rock cut shrines.
• The early Chalukyas inherited architectural styles largely from their neighbors to the north and south of their kingdom.[11] Usage of curved towers decorated with blind arches came from northern India. Plastered walls with panel inserts are a southern Indian style. The usage of Deccan style is in their balcony seating, angled eaves and sloping roofs, and elaborately carved columns and ceilings. They artistically brought together the prevailing styles in their neighbourhood to create the Chalukya style.Following figure shows:
  (1)A pillar relief at the Durga temple in Aihoḷe (2)Mantapa (hall) in the famous Ravana Phadi cave temple at Aihoḷe. dated 6th century

• Typical features unique to Badami Chalukyas architecture include mortarless assembly, an emphasis on length rather than width or height, flat roofs, richly carved ceilings, and, sculpturally, an emphasis on relatively few major figures, which tend to be isolated from each other rather than arranged in crowded groups. 

(42) Ajanta

• The Ajanta Caves in Aurangabad district,100 kilometres from the Ellora Caves(which contain Hindu and Jain temples as well as Buddhist caves, the last dating from a period similar to Ajanta) are about 30 rock-cut Buddhist cave monuments which date from the 2nd century BCE to about 480 or 650 CE.The caves include paintings and sculptures are the finest surviving examples of Indian art, particularly painting ,which are masterpieces of Buddhist religious art, with figures of the Buddha and depictions of the Jataka tales.
• Ajanta Caves have been a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
• The caves form the largest corpus of early Indian wall-painting.The elaborate architectural carving in many caves is also very rare, and the style of the many figure sculptures is highly local, although the Ajanta tradition can be related to the later Hindu Ellora Caves and other sites. The Ajanta paintings influenced painting in Tibet and Sri Lanka.
• Like the other ancient Buddhist monasteries, Ajanta had a large emphasis on teaching, and was divided into several different caves for living, education and worship, under a central direction. The layout reflects this organizational structure, with most of the caves only connected through the exterior. 
• The 7th-century travelling Chinese scholar Xuanzang(Huen tsang) informs us that Dignaga, a Buddhist philosopher and controversialist, author of well-known books on logic, lived at Ajanta in the 5th century.
• The caves were built in two phases starting around the 2nd century BCE, with the second group of caves built around 400–650 CE.

Caves of the first (Satavahana) period:

• The earliest group of caves consists of caves 9, 10, 12, 13 and 15A. Of these, caves 9 and 10 are stupa halls of chaitya-griha form, and caves 12, 13, and 15A are viharas.
• The first phase is called the Hinayana phase, when the Buddha was revered symbolically.

Caves of the later, or Vakațaka, period:

• The second phase began in the 5th century during the reign of Emperor Harishena of the Vakataka dynasty.
• The second phase is still often called the Mahāyāna or Greater Vehicle phase.
• Some 20 cave temples were simultaneously created, for the most part viharas with a sanctuary at the back. The most elaborate caves were produced in this period, which included some modernization of earlier caves.
• Caves of the second period are 1–8, 11, 14–29, some possibly extensions of earlier caves. Caves 19, 26, and 29 are chaitya-grihas, the rest viharas.



Entrance to Cave 19

• Ajanta Caves appear to have been abandoned by wealthy patrons shortly after the fall of Harishena. 

Paintings

• Mural paintings survive from both the earlier and later groups of caves. By Satavahana times, the Indian painter had mastered an easy and fluent naturalistic style, dealing with large groups of people in a manner comparable to the reliefs of the Sanchi torana crossbars.
• All the paintings appear to be the work of painters at least as used to decorating palaces as temples, and show a familiarity with and interest in details of the life of a wealthy court. We know from literary sources that painting was widely practised and appreciated in the courts of the Gupta period. 
• Unlike much Indian painting, compositions are not laid out in horizontal compartments like a frieze, but show large scenes spreading in all directions from a single figure or group at the centre. The ceilings are also painted with sophisticated and elaborate decorative motifs. The paintings in cave 1 concentrate on those Jataka tales which show previous lives of the Buddha as a king, rather than as an animal or human commoner, and so show settings from contemporary palace life.(following figure shows paintings of Padmapani and Vajrapani on either side of the Buddha in Cave 1)

Scene of Mahajataka in Cave 1

Architecture:

• The monasteries mostly consist of vihara halls for prayer and living, which are typically rectangular with small square dormitory cells cut into the walls, and by the second period a shrine or sanctuary at the rear centred on a large statue of the Buddha, also carved from the living rock. This change reflects the movement from Hinayana to Mahayana Buddhism. 



Vihara(For prayer and living) - Plan, It has a congregation hall with cells for the monks on the inner sides.



Chaitya - Interior, consists of a long vaulted nave

• The other type of main hall is the narrower and higher chaitya hall with a stupa at the far end, and a narrow aisle (passage) around the walls, behind a range of pillars placed close together. Other plainer rooms were for sleeping and other activities. 
• Some of the caves have elaborate carved entrances, some with large windows over the door to admit light. 
• The central square space of the interior of the viharas is defined by square columns forming square open area. Outside this are long rectangular aisles on each side.The viharas of the earlier period are much simpler, and lack shrines.
• Cave 6 is two viharas, one above the other, connected by internal stairs, with sanctuaries on both levels.
• Walking around stupas was (and remains) a common element of Buddhist worship (pradakshina). 
• The form of columns in the work of the first period is very plain with chaitya halls using simple octagonal columns, which were painted with figures. In the second period columns were far more varied and inventive, often changing profile over their height, and with elaborate carved capitals, often spreading wide.
• The two later halls have unusual arrangement (also found in Cave 10 at Ellora) where the stupa is fronted by a large relief sculpture of the Buddha, standing in Cave 19 and seated in Cave 26.(First figure below shows an early chaitya hall, with murals surviving, and plain octagonal columns.Second and third figure is of Cave 19 and 26 with elaborate carved column and standing and seating Budhha)

• The caves from the first period seem to have been paid for by a number of different patrons, with several inscriptions recording the donation of particular portions of a single cave, but the later caves were each commissioned as a complete unit by a single patron from the local rulers or their court elites. 

Iconography:

• In the pre-Christian era, the Buddha was represented symbolically, in the form of the stupa. Thus, halls were made with stupas to venerate the Buddha. In later periods the images of the Buddha started to be made in coins, relic caskets, relief or loose sculptural forms, etc. However, it took a while for the human representation of the Buddha to appear in Buddhist art. One of the earliest evidences of the Buddha's human representations are found at Buddhist archaeological sites, such as Goli, Nagarjunakonda, and Amaravati. The monasteries of those sites were built in less durable media, such as wood, brick, and stone.
• Buddha images in a portable form, made of wood or stone, were introduced, for the first time, at Kanheri, to be followed soon at Ajanta Cave 8. While the Kanheri example dates to 4th or 5th century CE, the Ajanta example has been dated to c. 462–478 CE.
• The caves of the second period, dated to the 5th century, were described as "Mahayana", but do not show the features associated with later Mahayana Buddhism. Although the beginnings of Mahayana teachings go back to the 1st century there is little art and archaeological evidence to suggest that it became a mainstream cult for several centuries. In Mahayana it is not Gautama Buddha but the Bodhisattva who is important, including "deity" Bodhisattva like Manjushri and Tara, as well as aspects of the Buddha such as Aksobhya(Represents consciousness as an aspect of reality.Budhha is located in the east of the Diamond Realm), and Amitabha(celestial buddha). Except for a few Bodhisattva, these are not depicted at Ajanta, where the Buddha remains the dominant figure. Even the Bodhisattva images of Ajanta are never central objects of worship, but are always shown as attendants of the Buddha in the shrine. If a Bodhisattva is shown in isolation, as in the Astabhaya scenes, these were done in the very last years of activities at Ajanta, and are mostly 'intrusive' in nature, meaning that they were not planned by the original patrons, and were added by new donors after the original patrons had suddenly abandoned the region in the wake of Emperor Harisena's death.



The Buddha in a preaching pose flanked by bodhisattvas, Cave 4

• The second phase of Ajanta shows that the stupa and image coincided together. If the entire corpus of the art of Ajanta including sculpture, iconography, architecture, epigraphy, and painting are analysed afresh it will become clear that there was no duality between the symbolic and human forms of the Buddha, as far as the 5th-century phase of Ajanta is concerned. That is why most current scholars tend to avoid the terms 'Hinayana' and 'Mahayana' in the context of Ajanta. They now prefer to call the second phase by the ruling dynasty, as the Vakaţaka phase.



Cave 2, porch: Nagendra panel flanked by yaksa panels