13.(MEDIEVAL INDIA) RISE OF REGIONAL KINGDOMS IN NORTH INDIA AND A SYSTEM OF BALANCE OF POWER

References: Satish Chandra(Medieval India) and JL Mehta(Advanced Study In History Of Medieval India).Also minor facts from other books and figure and facts from verified Internet sources.

13.RISE OF REGIONAL KINGDOMS IN NORTH INDIA AND A SYSTEM OF BALANCE OF POWER

Timur's invasion of Delhi in 1398 hastened the downfall of the Tughlaq dynasty, and the end of the

Sultanat of Delhi. Even before Timur's invasion, the weakness of the Sultanat of Delhi had become

manifest to all, with the emergence of two kings, one at Firuzabad and another at Delhi and the

breaking away of many provincial kingdoms. The Deccani states, and Bengal in the east, and Sindh and

Multan in the west had broken away towards the end of Muhammad bin Tughlaq's rule, and after some

feeble efforts, Firuz had reconciled himself to their loss. Following the Timurid i nvasion, the governors of

Gujarat, Malwa, and Jaunpur (in the east Uttar Pradesh) declared themselves independent, while Khizr

Khan assumed full powers in the Punjab. With the expulsion of the Muslim governor from Ajmer, the

various states of Rajputana also asserted their independence. Even within the Delhi region, the rulers

were hard put to assert their control

While these various provincial kingdoms and Rajput states fought against each other, it would be wrong

to consider the 15th century a period of decadence and decline in north India. Politically, warfare

between the various states rarely extended beyond the border regions, with a definite pattern of

balance of power emerging between the states located in the various regions—east, west and north. In

the west, Gujarat, Malwa and Mewar balanced and checked the growth of each other's power. In the

east, Bengal was checked by the Gajpati rulers of Orissa, as also by the Sharqi rulers of Jaunpur. In the

north, while Kashmir remained aloof, the rise of the Lodis at Delhi towards the middle of 15th century

led to a long drawn-209

out struggle between them and the rulers of Jaunpur for the mastery of the Ganga-Jamuna doab.

The balance of power began to break down by the end of the 15th century. With the final defeat of

Jaunpur by the Lodis, and the extension of their rule from Punjab up to the borders of Bengal, the

Sultanat of Delhi had been virtually re-established, and the heat was on eastern Rajasthan and Malwa.

Meanwhile, Malwa itself had started disintegrating due to internal factors, leading to a sharpened rivalry

between Gujarat and Mewar. The Lodis, too, were keen to use the situation in order to extend their rule

over the region. Thus, Malwa once again became the cock-pit of the struggle for mastery of north India.

Culturally, the new kingdoms which arose tried to utilise local cultural forms and traditions for their

own-purposes. This was mostly manifested in the field of architecture where efforts were made to

adopt and adapt the new architectural forms developed by the Turks by utilising local forms and

traditions. In many cases, encouragement was given to local languages, while political necessity

compelled many of them to establish a closer association with Hindu ruling elites. This, in turn, had an

effect on the processes of cultural rapprochement between the Hindus and the Muslims which had been

working apace.

i. Eastern India—Bengal, Assam and Orissa

As we have noted earlier, Bengal had frequently asserted its independence from Delhi, taking advantage

of its distance, difficulty of communications by land or water, and the fact that its hot and humid climate

often did not suit soldiers and others used to the drier climate of north-western India.

Due to the preoccupation of Muhammad Tughlaq with rebellions in various quarters, Bengal again broke

away from Delhi in 1338. Four years later, one of the nobles, Ilyas Khan, captured Lakhnauti and

Sonargaon, and ascended the throne under the title Sultan Shamsuddin Ilyas Khan. Ilyas Khan extended

his dominions in the west from Tirhut to Champaran and Gorakhpur, and finally upto Banaras. This

forced Firuz Tughlaq to undertake a campaign against him. Marching through Champaran and

Gorakhpur, the territories newly acquired by Ilyas, Firuz Tughlaq occupied the Bengali capital Pandua,

and forced Ilyas to seek shelter in the strong fort of Ekdala. After a siege of two months, Firuz tempted

Ilyas out of the fort by feigning flight. In a hard fought battle, the Bengali forces were defeated. But Ilyas

Khan once again retreated into Ekdala.

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Finally, a treaty of friendship was concluded by which the river Kosi in Bihar was fixed as the boundary

between the two kingdoms. Though Ilyas exchanged regular gifts with Firuz, he was in no way

subordinate to him. Friendly relations with Delhi enabled Ilyas to extend his control over the kingdom of

Kamrup (in modern Assam). He also made plundering raids upto Kathmandu in Nepal, and in Orissa.

Ilyas Shah was a popular ruler and had many achievements to his credit. When Firuz was at Pandua, he

tried to win over the inhabitants of the city to his side by giving liberal grants of land to the nobles, the

clergy and other deserving people. His attempt failed. The popularity of Ilyas enabled him to set up a

dynasty which, in one form or another, ruled for more than a hundred years.

Firuz Tughlaq invaded Bengal a second time when Ilyas died and his son, Sikandar, succeeded to the

throne. Sikandar followed the tactics of his father, and retreated to Ekdala. Firuz failed, once again, to

capture it, and had to beat a retreat. After this, Bengal was left alone for about 200 years and was not

invaded again till 1538 after the Mughals had established their power at Delhi. It was overrun by Sher

Shah in 1538, but Akbar had to reconquer it after the end of the Sur dynasty.

The most famous sultan in the dynasty of Ilyas Shah was Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah (1389-1409). He was

known for his love of justice. It is said that once he accidentally killed the son of a widow who

complained to the qazi. The Sultan, when summoned to the court, humbly appeared and paid the fine

imposed by the qazi. At the end of the trial, the Sultan told the qazi that if he had failed in his duty, the

would have had him beheaded. The qazi told him that he would have had him scourged if he had not

obeyed his orders.

Azam Shah had close relations with the famous learned men of his times, including the celebrated

Persian poet, Hafiz of Shiraz. He re-established friendly relations with the Chinese. The Chinese emperor

received his envoy cordially and, in 1409, sent his own envoy with presents to the sultan and his wife,

and a request to send Buddhist monks to China. This was accordingly done. Incidentally, this shows that

Buddhism had not died completely in Bengal till then. Six years later, his successor, Sultan Saifuddin,

again sent a letter written on a gold plate, and a giraffe to the Chinese emperor.

The revival of contact with China helped in the growth of the overseas trade of Bengal. Chittagong

became a flourishing port for

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trade with China. Ocean going ships were built in Bengal, and its exports included fine quality textiles.

Bengal also became a centre for the re-export of Chinese goods. Mahuan, the Chinese interpreter to the

Chinese envoy, has left an account, and mentions mulberry trees, and the production of silk in Bengal,

and paper which was as glossy as deer's skin. During this period, many sufis came to Bengal. They were welcomed by the Sultan, and encouraged with

grant of rent-free lands. These saints impressed the people by their simple style of living, and their deep

devotion and saintliness. These saints are credited with effecting conversions to Islam on a large scale,

particularly in the eastern part of Bengal where Buddhism was widely prevalent, and poverty was widespread. Perhaps, the conversions were due in large measure to social, cultural and other factors, but

credit for conversion was given to the blessing (barkat) of the saints.

Powerful Hindu rajas continued to live under the Muslim rulers of Bengal, and to be associated with the

affairs of the state. Thus, Raja Ganesh of Dinajpur, who had a large estate and his own army, first

became a king-maker to the successors of Sultan Saifuddin, and later assumed the throne himself. The

basis of Ganesh's support is not clear. Some of the Turkish nobles and theologians sent an invitation to

the ruler of Jaunpur to deliver the land of Islam from kufr. A Jaunpur army was sent to Gaur for the

purpose, and won a victory. But it could not stay on because of the active struggle between the rulers of

Jaunpur and Delhi. Raja Ganesh, who was an old man, died soon after, and was succeeded by his son

who preferred to rule as a Muslim. However, the affairs in the kingdom remained unsettled till Alauddin

Husain succeeded to the throne in 1493, and set up a new dynasty which continued to rule till the rise of

Sher Shah.

Freed from threat of military invasion from Delhi as a result of agreement with Firuz, and the

subsequent weakness of the Delhi Sultanat, the Sultans of Bengal adorned their capitals, Gaur (old

Lakhnauti) and Pandua 25 kms to the north, with magnificent buildings. However, only a few of them

have survived, though the ruins over a large area indicate the extensive scale of the building activities.

The largest building which has survived is the Adina mosque. This mosque was large enough to

accommodate several thousand people. Although the stones used in the mosque were mostly those

pillaged from temples and other buildings from Lakhnauti, the use of broad sloping arches (called 'drop'

arches), pillars of a special type, and curvilinear roofs indicate that a new

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style of architecture, independent of Delhi, and using local traditions had developed. This mature style

of architecture is to be seen in the Dakhil Darwaza (second half of 15th century). The buildings were

mostly of brick and mortar, stone being used sparingly. The adoption of the lotus, swan etc., as

decorative motifs showed the influence of Hindu traditions.

The Sultans also patronised the Bengali language. The celebrated poet, Maladhar Basu, compiler of SriKrishna-Vijaya, was patronised by the sultans and was granted the title of Gunaraja Khan. His son was

honoured with the title of Satyaraja Khan. But the most significant period for the growth of the Bengali

language was the rule of Alauddin Hussain (1493-1519). Some of the famous Bengali writers of the time

flourished under his rule.

A brilliant period began under the enlightened rule of Alauddin Hussain. The Sultan restored law and

order, and adopted a liberal policy by offering high offices to Hindus. Thus, his wazir was a talented

Hindu. The chief physician, the chief of the bodyguard, the master of the mint were all Hindus. The two

famous brothers who were celebrated as pious Vaishnavas, Rupa and Sanatan, held high posts, one of

them being the sultan's private secretary. Krittibas, the translator of Ramanayana into Bengali, was said

to have been closely associated with Sanatan. Some of the nobles of Alauddin Hussain gave patronage

to Bengali poets. The sultan is also said to have shown great respect to the famous Vaishnavite saint,

Chaitanya, and no obstacles were placed in his path of giving a new spiritual ethos to Bengali life.

Hussain Shah tried to extend his territories in the north into Assam, in the south-west towards Orissa,

and south-east towards Chittagaon and Arakan. Of these, he was most successful in extending his

empire towards Chittagaon and Arakan. Although details of the conquest are lacking, control over the

port of Chittagaon was an important link with the overseas trade with south-east Asia, extending upto

China, on the one hand, and with Africa on the other. In a series of hard fought battles, Tipperah in the

east was also captured and annexed.

Assam

The rulers of Bengal had always tried to bring the rich and fertile valley of Brahmaputra in modern

Assam under their control. With the decline of the Palas by the middle of the 12th century, the

Brahmaputra valley was divided into a number of warring principalities. Gradually, the rulers of Kamrup

and Kamta in the west

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(Persian historians use them interchangeably) brought under their control the area between the Kartoya

and the Barnadi rivers. To their east were the Ahoms. The Ahoms belonged to the great Tai group of

tribes which dominated south China and many south-east Asian countries. They came to the

Brahmaputra valley from Yunan in the first half of the 13th century and, under their ruler Sukapha,

established their control over the modern districts of Dibrugarh and Sibsagar. In course of time, the

entire valley began to be called Assam after their name.

We have already seen how Muhammed bin Baktiyar Khalji had led an expedition in Kumrup, aimed at

Tibet, but had to suffer a disastrous defeat in an area which was little known to him. The subsequent

efforts of Turkish governors and rebel rulers of Bengal to bring the area under their subservience and to

establish themselves in Gauhati also failed due to climate, geography and the stout resistance of the

local people. However, for some time the rulers of Kamrup/Kamta was forced to pay an annual tribute in

gold and elephants to Bengal, and this became a basis of its future claims.

The independent sultans of Bengal took up where their predecessors have failed. Ilyas Shah invaded

Kamrup, and occupied its capital. However, the Ahoms were not happy at the presence of Turks so near

their frontier, and shortly, with their help, the ruler of Kamrup threw the Turks across the river Kartoya

which was now accepted as the north-eastern boundary of Bengal.

However, the rulers of Bengal were determined to bring Kamrup under their control at the first suitable

opportunity. This they found an account of the hostility between the ruler of Kamrup and the Ahoms.

Alauddin Hussain Shah invaded, occupied and annexed the western part, consisting of modern CoochBihar upto Hajo.

Despite the internal political situation, and recurrent fights, both within the valley and with the

governors and the sultans of Bengal, Kamrup and Kamta maintained their ancient traditions of

scholarship, and of Sanskrit learning. Simultaneously, a new language, Assamese, based on the

intermingling of the various people and tribes, emerged. The first literary work in Assamese is supposed

to be Hem Saraswati's Prahlad Charit. A new incentive was given with the rise of neo-Vaishnavite

movement under Shankardeva (b. 1449). Like the bhakti saints of north-western India, Shankardeva and

his followers emphasised prayers and devotion in preference to ritual. In order to reach the people,

these saints spoke and wrote in Assamese. Their centres, called namghoras, became active centres for

the dissemination of the new faith, and its literature.

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Thus, the 15th century can be called a period of literary and cultural renaissance in Assam. Another

development of the period was the steady Hinduization of the Ahoms, by incorporating their gods into

the Hindu pantheon, marriage with Hindu noble families etc. The Ahom rulers were aware that

accepting Hinduism implied giving the ruler a divine status which strengthened his position vis-a-vis the

nobles. Also, by incorporating the cognate clans and bordering tribes, Hinduism strengthened the new

polity.

Orissa

In those days, the boundaries of Orissa were not clearly demarcated from Bengal. The Ganga rulers, who

came to power in middle of the 11th century and ruled till the middle of the 15th century, unified the

three areas—Utkal, Kalinga, and Kosala which constitute present Orissa. The Ganga rulers were great

warriors and temple builders. Narsinghdeo, (d. 1264) considered one of the greatest rulers, built the

famous sun temple at Konark. He invaded and occupied Radha in south Bengal, and even invested

Lakhnauti more than once which was saved by the timely intervention of a Delhi army. At the time, the

Orissa frontier with Bengal was the Saraswati river which then carried much of the waters of the Ganga.

Thus, a large part of the modern Midnapore district and parts of the Hugli district were included in

Orissa. The Orissa rulers, it seemed, tried to extend their frontiers upto the Bhagirathi, but could not do

so in the face of opposition from the rulers of Bengal.

At the beginning of his reign, Ilyas Shah raided Jajnagar (Orissa). It is said that overcoming all opposition,

he advanced up to the Chilka Lake and returned with a rich booty, including a number of elephants. A

couple of years later, in 1360, while returning from his Bengal campaign, Firuz Tughlaq also raided

Orissa. He occupied the capital city, massacred a large number of people, and desecrated the famous

Jagannath temple. These two raids destroyed the prestige of the royal dynasty but it lingered on till the

middle of 15th century when a new dynasty, called the Gajpati dynasty, came to the fore. The Gajapati

rule marks a brilliant phase in Orissa history. The Gajapati rulers were mainly instrumental in extending

their ruler in the south toward Karnataka. As we have seen, this brought them into conflict with

Vijayanagar, the Reddis and the Bahmani sultans. Perhaps, one reason why the Gajapati rulers preferred

aggarandizement in the south was their feeling that the sultans of Bengal were too strong to be easily

dislodged from the Bengal-Orissa

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border. While this brought them glory and booty, the Orissa rulers could not hold on to their southern

conquests for any length of time, due to the power and capabilities of the Vijayanagar and Bahmani

rulers. That the Orissa rulers were able to engage successfully in battles at the same time in such farflung areas in Bengal and Karnataka testifies to their strength and prowess. The  Orissa language also

developed during the period, with many works being produced in poetry and prose.

Thus, the various regions of the east prospered during the period. Although Bengal was the most

powerful among the various kingdoms of the regions, it was not, despite plundering them, able to bring

the states of Assam and Orissa under its control. A threat to the freedom of Bengal developed when the

Lodi rulers over-ran Jaunpur with whom the rulers of Bengal had friendly relations. The defeated ruler of

Jaunpur took shelter in the Bengal kingdom and was accorded a warm welcome. A threatened collision

was averted, although the armies of Bengal and Delhi stood face to face for some time. As a result of the

agreement, Bihar was silently partitioned between the two.

ii. Western India: Gujarat, Malwa and Rajasthan

On account of their size, rich and fertile lands and salubrious climate, Gujarat and Malwa were always

regarded as rich prizes. Gujarat was famous for its excellent handicrafts and its flourishing sea-ports

from which much of north India's sea-trade was conducted. Malwa and Rajasthan were important

transit centres, linking the products of the Ganga valley with the sea-ports of Gujarat. Hence, control

over Malwa and Gujarat and the road link across Rajasthan had always been the concern of any imperial

power in the north or south.

During the 15th century, Malwa and Gujarat balanced each other. While both tried to bring the border

states of Rajasthan under their domination, they were unable to make deep in-roads into Rajasthan,

mainly on account of the rise of Mewar under Rana Kumbha. But this balance began to break down

during the early decades of the 16th century, leading to a new, emerging situation.

Gujarat

Under Firuz Tughlaq, Gujarat had a benign governor who, according to Ferishta, "encouraged the Hindu

religion and thus promoted rather than suppressed the worship of idols." He was succeeded

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by Zafar Khan whose father, Sadharan, was a Rajput who was converted to Islam, and had given his

sister in marriage to Firuz Tughlaq. After Timur's invasion of Delhi, both Gujarat and Malwa became

independent in all but name. However, it was not till 1407 that Zafar Khan formally proclaimed himself

the ruler in Gujarat, with the title Muzaffar Shah. Dilawar Khan Ghuri, the governor of Malwa, had

declared himself independent at Mandu a few years earlier.

The real founder of the kingdom of Gujarat was, however, Ahmad Shah I (1411-42), the grandson of

Muzaffar Shah. During his long reign, he brought the nobility under control, settled the administration,

and expanded and consolidated the kingdom. He shifted the capital from Patan to the new city of

Ahmedabad, the foundation of which he laid in 1413. He was a great builder, and beautified the town

with many magnificent palaces and bazars, mosques and madrasas. He drew on the rich architectural

tradition of the Jains of Gujarat to devise a style of building which was markedly different from Delhi.

Some of its features are: slender turrets, exquisite stone-carving, and highly ornate brackets. The Jama

Masjid in Ahmedabad and the Tin Darwaza are fine examples of the style of architecture during the

time. Ahmad Shah tried to extend his control over the Rajput states in the Saurashtra region, as well as

those located on the Gujarat-Rajasthan border. In Saurashtra, he defeated and captured the strong fort

of Girnar, but restored it to the Raja on his promise to pay tribute. He then attacked Sidhpur, the famous

Hindu pilgrim centre, and levelled to the ground many of the beautiful temples there. In addition to

peshkash or annual tribute, he imposed jizyah on the Hindu rulers in Gujarat which had never been

imposed on them earlier. However, just as jizyah was collected as a part of the land-revenue (kharaj)

from individuals in the Sultanat of Delhi, jizyah and peshkash must have been collected together from

the rajas. All these measures led many medieval historians to hail Ahmad Shah as a great enemy of the

infields, while many modern historians have called him a bigot. The truth, however, appears to be more

complex. While Ahmad Shah acted as a bigot in ordering the destruction of Hindu temples, he did not

hesitate to induct Hindus in government. Manik Chand and Motichand, belonging to the bania or

commercial community, were ministers under him. He was so strict in his justice that he had his own

son-in-law executed in the market-place for a murder he had committed. Although he fought the Hindu

rulers he fought no less the Muslim rulers of the time, i.e. the Muslim rulers of Malwa,

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Khandesh and the Deccan. He subordinated the powerful fort of Idar, and brought the Rajput states of

Jhalawar, Bundi, Dungarpur, etc., under his control.

From the beginning, the kingdoms of Gujarat and Malwa were bitter rivals and were generally found in

opposite camps on almost every occasion. The warfare between them, like the warfare between the

rulers of Vijayanagar and the Bahmanis, did not, however, lead to any lasting change in their frontiers.

Muzaffar Shah had defeated and imprisoned Hushang Shah who succeeded Dilawar Khan as the ruler of

Malwa. Finding it difficult to control Malwa, he had, however, released Hushang Shah after a few years

and reinstated him. Far from healing the breach, it had made the rulers of Malwa even more

apprehensive of Gujarat's power. They were always on the lookout for weakening Gujarat by giving help

and encouragement to disaffected elements there, be they the rebel nobles, or Hindu rajas at war with

the Gujarat ruler. The rulers of Gujarat tried to counter this by trying to install their own nominee on the

throne of Malwa. This bitter rivalry weakened the two kingdoms, and made it impossible for them to

play a larger role in the politics of north India.

Mahmud Begarha

The successors of Ahmad Shah continued his policy of expansion and consolidation. The most famous

sultan of Gujarat was Mahmud Begarha. Mahmud Begarha ruled over Gujarat for more than 50 years

(from 1459 to 1511). He was called Begarha because he captured two of the most powerful forts (garhs),

Girnar in Saurashtra (now called Junagarh) and Champaner in south Gujarat.1 The ruler of Girnar had

paid tribute regularly, but Mahmud Begarha decided to annex his kingdom as a part of his policy of

bringing Saurashtra under full control. Saurashtra was a rich and prosperous region and had many fertile

tracts and flourishing ports. Unfortunately, the Saurashtra region was also infested by robbers and seapirates who preyed on trade and shipping. The powerful fort of Girnar was considered suitable not only

for administering Saurashtra, but also as a base of operations against Sindh.

Mahmud Begarha besieged Girnar with a large force. Though the raja had only a few guns in the fort, he

resisted gallantly, but

1. According to another version, he was called Begarha because his mustaches resembled the horns of a

cow (begarha).

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to no avail. It is said that the conquest of this inaccessible fort was due to treason. The ruler of Girnar

had forcibly taken the wife of his kamdar (minister/agent) who schemed in secret the downfall of his

master. After the fall of the fort, the raja embraced Islam and was entrolled in the service of the sultan.

The sultan founded at the foot of the hill a new town called Mustafabad. He built many lofty buildings

there and asked all his nobles to do the same. Thus, it became the second capital of Gujarat.

Later in his region, Mahmud Begarha sacked Dwarka, largely because it harboured pirates who ravaged

the traders. Thus, the immediate occasion for Mahmud's attack was the plaint of Maulana Mahmud Samarquandi that while returning to Hormuz, he was driven ashore and all his property looted by the

pirates who were sheltered by the local ruler. The campaign was, however, also used to raze the famous

Hindu temples there.

The fort of Champaner was strategically located for the Sultan's plans of bringing Khandesh and Malwa

under his control. The ruler, though a feudatory of Gujarat, had close relations with the sultan of Malwa.

Champaner fell in 1454 after the gallant raja and his followers, despairing of help from any quarter,

performed the jauhar ceremony and fought to the last man. Mahmud constructed a new town called

Muhammadabad near Champner. He laid out many fine gardens there and made it his principal place of

residence.

Champner is now in ruins. But the building that still attracts attention is the Jama Masjid. It has a

covered courtyard, and many Jain principles of architecture have been used in it. The stone work in the

other buildings constructed during this period is so fine that it can only be compared to the work of

goldsmiths.

Mahmud Begarha also had to deal with the Portuguese who were interfering with Gujarat's trade with

the countries of West Asia. He joined hands with the ruler of Egypt to check the Portuguese naval

power, but he was not successful.

During the long and peaceful reign of Mahmud Begarha, trade and commerce prospered. He

constructed many caravan-sarais amd inns for the comfort of the travellers. The merchants were happy

because roads were safe for traffic.

Though Mahmud Begarha had never received a systematic education, he had gained considerable

knowledge by his constant association with the learned men. Many works were translated from Arabic

into Persian during his reign. His court poet was Udayaraja who composed in Sanskrit.

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Mahmud Begarha had a striking appearance. He had a flowing beard which reached up to his waist, and

his moustache was so long that he tied it over his head. According to a traveller, Barbosa, Mahmud,

from his childhood, had been nourished on some poison so that if a fly settled on his hand, it swelled

and immediately lay dead.

Mahmud was also famous for his voracious appetite. It is said that for breakfast he ate a cup of honey, a

cup of butter and one hundred to one hundred-fifty plantains. He ate 10 to 15 kilos of food a day and we

are told that plates of meat patties (samosas) were placed on both the side of his pillow at night in case

he felt hungry!

From the beginning, the rulers of Gujarat adopted a policy of entering into matrimonial relations with

some of their subordinate Rajput rulers. Thus, in 1446, the daughter of the raja of Idar married the

Gujarati ruler. The mother of Muzaffar Shah II was also a Rajput, and he himself married a number of

Rajput princesses. Although many Hindus rose in the service of the Gujarati rulers, such as Rajya Rayan

who was the chief Hindu noble of Mahmud Begarha, and Malik Gopi who was the chief minister, the

policy of matrimonial alliances neither brought any changes in the overall policies of the sultans, nor

brought the concerned families into a closer political union.

The Gujarat kingdom remained a powerful, well-administered and prosperous state of the country, and

was powerful enough not to allow any serious encroachments on its territories and ports by the

Portuguese. However, its efforts under Bahadur Shah to dominate Malwa and Rajasthan led to a clash

with the Mughals and proved its undoing.

Malwa and Mewar

The state of Malwa was situated on the high plateau between Narmada and Tapti rivers. It commanded

the trunk routes between Gujarat and northern India, as also between north and south India. As long as

Malwa continued to be strong, it acted as a barrier to the ambitions of Gujarat, Mewar, the Bahmanis

and the Lodi sultans of Delhi. The geographical situation in northern India was such that if any of the

powerful states of the region could extend its control over Malwa, it would be well on its way to make a

bid for the domination of the entire northern India.

During the fifteenth century, the kingdom of Malwa remained at the height of its power. The capital was

shifted from Dhar to

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Mandu, a place which was highly defensive and which had a great deal of natural beauty. Here the ruler

of Malwa constructed a large number of buildings, the ruins of which are still impressive. Unlike the

Gujarat style of architecture, the Mandu architecture was massive, and was made to look even more so

by using a very lofty plinth for the buildings. The large-scale use of coloured and glazed tiles provided

variety to the buildings. The best known among them are the Jama Masjid, the Hindola Mahal and the

Jahaz Mahal.

From the beginning, the kingdom of Malwa was torn by internal dissensions. The struggle for succession

between different contenders to the throne was accompanied by fighting between different groups of

nobles for power and profit. The neighbouring states of Gujarat and Mewar were always ready to take

advantage of this factionalism for their own purpose.

One of the early rulers of Malwa, Hushang Shah, adopted a broad policy of religious toleration. Many

Rajputs, some of them from modern east UP, were encouraged to settle in Malwa and given rich grants.

Rai Silhadi was one of these. Two of the elder brothers of Rana Mokal of Mewar were also granted jagirs

in Malwa. From the inscription of the Lalitpur temple which was built during this period, it appears that

no restrictions were placed on the construction of temples. Hushang Shah extended his patronage to

the Jains who were the principal commercial merchants and bankers of the area. Thus, Nardeva Soni, a

successful merchant, was the treasurer of Hushang Shah, and one of his adviser.

Unfortunately, all the rulers of Malwa were not equally tolerant. Mahmud Khalji (1436-69), who is

considered the most powerful of the Malwa rulers, destroyed many temples during his struggle with

Rana Kumbha of Mewar, and with the neighbouring Hindu rajas. Though his actions cannot be justified,

most of them were carried out during periods of war, and cannot be considered part of any policy of

general destruction of Hindu temples.

Mahmud Khalji was a restless and ambitious monarch. He fought with almost all his neighbours—the

ruler of Gujarat, the rajas of Gondwana and Orissa, the Bahmani sultans, and even with the sultans of

Delhi. However, his energies were principally devoted to overrunning south Rajputana and trying to

subdue Mewar.

The steady rise of Mewar during the 15th century was an important factor in the political life of north

India. With the conquest of Ranthambhor by Alauddin Khalji, the power of the Chauhans in Rajputana

had finally come to an end. From its ruins a number of new states arose. Taking advantage of the decline

of the Tughlaqs,

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Rao Chunda of Marwar occupied Sambhar, Nagaur and Ajmer, and made Marwar the most powerful

state of Rajasthan. However, Marwar received a set back due to the rising power of Mewar, and the

hostility of the Bhatis, and the ruler of Multan. Later, Rao Jodha (1438-89) who had to lead a wandering

life for some time, founded the new city and capital of Jodhpur (1659), and re -established the state.

Another state of consequence in the area was the Muslim principality of Nagaur. Ajmer which had been

the seat of power of the Muslim governors changed hands several times and was a bone of contention

among the rising Rajput states. The mastery of eastern Rajputana was also in dispute, the rulers of Delhi

being deeply interested in this area.

The early history of the state of Mewar is obscure. Though it dated back to the eighth century, the ruler

who raised it to the status of a power to be reckoned with was Rana Kumbha (1433-68). After cautiously

consolidating his position by defeating his internal rivals, Kumbha annexed Sambhar, Nagaur, Ajmer,

Ranthambhor etc., and brought the border states of Bundi, Kotah, Dungarpur etc., under his control.

Since Kotah had earlier been paying allegiance to Malwa, and Dungarpur to Gujarat, this brought

Kumbha into conflict with both these kingdoms. There were other reasons for the conflict, too. The Khan

of Nagaur who had been attacked by Rana Kumbha had appealed for help to the ruler of Gujarat. The

Rana had also give shelter at his court to a rival of Mahmud Khalji and even attempted to install him on

the Malwa throne. In retaliation, Mahmud Khalji had given shelter and active encouragement to some of

the rivals of the Rana, such as his brother, Mokal.

The conflict with Gujarat and Malwa occupied Kumbha throughout his reign. During most of the time,

the Rana also had to contend with the Rathors of Marwar. Although sorely pressed from all sides, the

Rana was largely able to maintain his position in Mewar. Kumbhalgarh was besieged a couple of times

by Gujarat forces, while Mahmud Khalji was able to raid as far inland as Ajmer and install his own

governor there. The Rana was able to repulse these attacks and retain possession of most of his

conquests, with the exception of some of the outlying areas such as Ranthambhor. Rana Kumbha's

facing two such powerful states against all odds was no small achievement.

Kumbha was a patron of learned men, and was himself a learned man. He composed a number of books,

some of which can still be

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read. The ruins of his palace and the Victory Tower (Kirti Stambha) which he built at Chittor show that

he was an enthusiastic builder as well. He dug several lakes and reservoirs for irrigation purposes. Some

of the temples built during his period show that the art of stone-cutting, sculpture, etc., was still at a

high level.

Kumbha was murdered by his son, Uda, in order to gain the throne. Though Uda was soon outsted, he

left a bitter trail. After some time, in 1508, Rana Sanga, a grandson of Kumbha, a scended the gaddi of

Mewar, after a long and bitter struggle with his brothers. The most important development between the

death of Kumbha and the rise of Sanga was the rapid interiial disintegration of Malwa. The ruler,

Mahmud II, had fallen out with Medini Rai, the powerful Rajput leader of eastern Malwa who had

helped him to gain the throne. The Malwa ruler appealed for help to Gujarat, while Medini Rai repaired

to the court of Rana Sanga. In a battle in 1519, the Rana defeated Mahmud II and carried him a prisoner

to Chittor but, it is claimed, he released him after six months, keeping one of his sons as a hostage.

Eastern Malwa, including Chanderi, passed under the over lordship of Rana Sanga.

The developments in Malwa alarmed the Lodi rulers of Delhi who had been trying to establish their hold

on Malwa, Chanderi having tendered allegiance to the Lodi sultan earlier. This led to a series of clashes

between the Lodi sultans and Sanga. In a battle in 1518 at Ghatoli, on the border of Harauti in south

Rajasthan, Ibrahim Lodi suffered a serious reverse, but Sanga was wounded and lamed for life. It seems

that there were a series of skirmishes between the Lodis and Sanga whose influence gradually extended

to Pilia Khar, a river near Fatehpur Sikri in the region of Agra.

Meanwhile, Babur was knocking at the gates of India. It seems that a conflict for supremacy in north

India was inescapable.

iii. North-West and North India—The Sharqis, the Lodi Sultans and Kashmir

After his invasion and attack on Delhi, since the Tughlaq sultan had run away, Timur had given Delhi to

Khizr Khan, who had earlier been the governor of Multan. Before his departure, Timur had also assigned

Multan and Dipalpur to Khizr Khan. However, the Tughlaq sultan had returned. Hence, Khizr Khan kept

away from Delhi, keeping his control over Multan and the Punjab. After the death of the Tughlaq ruler in

1412, he entered Delhi, and set up a new dynasty which he called the Saiyid dynasty. The Saiyids

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were not subordinates of the Timurid rulers, although their names were included in the khutba for some

time. However, the Saiyids were not able to establish themselves firmly, being threatened all the time

by the Khokhars of the Punjab, the Mewatis, and the Sharqi rulers of Jaunpur.

The Jaunpur kingdom had been set up by Malik Sarwar, a prominent noble of the time of Firuz Tughlaq.

Malik Sarwar had been the wazir for some time, and then had been nominated to the eastern areas with

the title Malik-us-Sharq (Lord of the east). His successors came to be called the Sharqis after the title.

The Sharqi sultans fixed their capital at Jaunpur (in eastern Uttar Pradesh) which they beautified with

magnificent palaces, mosques and mausoleums. Only a few of these mosques and mausoleum survive

now. They show that the Sharqi sultan did not just copy the Delhi style of architecture. They created a

magnificent style of their own, marked by lofty gates and huge arches.

The Sharqi sultans were great patrons of learning and culture. Poets and men of letters, scholars and

saints assembled at Jaunpur and shed lustre on it. In course of time, Jaunpur came to be known as the

"Shiraz of the East". Malik Muhammad Jaisi, the author of a well-known Hindi work, Padmavat, lived at

Jaunpur. The Sharqi sultanat lasted for less than a century. At its height, it extended from Aligarh in

western Uttar Pradesh to Darbhanga in north Bihar, and from the boundary of Nepal in the north to

Bundelkhand in the south. The Sharqi rulers were eager to conquer Delhi but they were not successful in

doing so. With the establishment of the Lodis in Delhi towards the middle of the fifteenth century, the

Sharqi rulers were gradually put on the defensive. They lost most of the areas in western Uttar Pradesh,

and exhausted themselves in a series of bitter but futile assaults on Delhi. At length, in 1484, Bahlul Lodi,

the ruler of Delhi, occupied Jaunpur and annexed the Sharqi kingdom. The Sharqi king lived on as an

exile at Chunar for some time, and died broken hearted after repeated failures in regaining his kingdom.

The Sharqi rulers maintained law and order over a large tract following the collapse of the government

in Delhi. They successfully prevented the rulers of Bengal in extending their control over east ern Uttar

Pradesh. Above all, they established a cultural tradition which continued long after the downfall of the

Sharqis.

We have mentioned the rise of the Saiyid dynasty after the end of the Tughlaqs. Threatened by the

rulers of Jaunpur, the Saiyids had sought the help of the Afghan leader, Bahlul Lodi, who had

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established himself in Punjab along with a number of Afghan sardars. Bahlul Lodi checked the growing

power of the Khokhars, a fierce warlike tribe which lived in the Salt Ranges. Soon, he dominated the

entire Punjab. Called in to help the ruler of Delhi against an impending attack by the ruler of Malwa,

Bahlul stayed on. Before long, his men took over the control of Delhi. Bahlul formally crowned himself in

1451.

The Lodis dominated the upper Ganga Valley and the Punjab from the middle of the fifteenth century.

As distinct from the earlier Delhi rulers who were Turks, the Lodis were Afghans. Although the Afghans

formed a large group in the army of the Delhi Sultanat, very few Afghan nobles had been accorded

important positions. That is why Bakhtiyar Khalji had to seek his fortune in Bihar and Bengal. The

growing importance of the Afghans in north India was shown by the rise of the Afghan rule in Malwa. In

the south, they held important positions in the Bahmani kingdom.

Bahlul Lodi's energies were occupied mainly in his contest with the Sharqi rulers. Finding himself in a

weak position, Bahlul invited the Afghans of Roh to come to India so that "they will get rid of the

ignominy of poverty and I shall gain ascendancy." The Afghan historian, Abbas Sarwani, adds: "On

receipt of these farmans, the Afghans of Roh came like locusts to join the service of Sultan Bahlul." This

may be an exaggeration. But the incursion of the Afghans not only enabled Bahlul to defeat the Sharqis,

it changed the complexion of the Muslim society in India, making the Afghans a very numerous and

important element in it, both in south and north India.

The most important Lodi sultan was Sikandar Lodi (1489-1517). A contemporary of Mahmud Begarha of

Gujarat and Rana Sanga of Mewar, Sikandar Lodi geared the kingdom of Delhi for the coming struggle

for power with these states. He tried to subdue the Afghan sardars who had a sturdy sense of tribal

independence, and were not accus tomed to look upon the sultan as more than a first among equals.

Sikandar made the nobles stand before him in order to impress them with his superior status. When a

royal order (farman) was sent, all the nobles had to come out of the town to receive it with due honour.

Thus Sikandar re-affirmed the supremacy of the sultan over his nobles. All those who held jagirs had to

submit accounts regularly. Drastic punishments were given to those who embezzled money or were

corrupt. Sikandar Lodi had only limited success in his efforts to control the nobles. At his death, Bahlul

Lodi had divided the kingdom among his sons and relations. Though Sikandar had been able to undo this

after a hard struggle, the idea

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of a partition of the empire among sons of the ruler persisted among Afghans.

Sikandar Lodi was able to establish an efficient administration in his kingdom. He laid great emphasis on

justice, and all the highways of the empire were made safe from robbers and bandits. The prices of all

essential commodities were remarkably cheap. The Sultan took keen interest in agriculture. He

abolished the octroi duty on grains, and established a new measurement of a yard, called the gazz-isikandari, which continued to prevail till the Mughal times. The rent-rolls (jama) prepared in his time

formed the basis of the rent-rolls prepared in the time of Sher Shah later on.

Sikandar Lodi is regarded as an orthodox, even a bigoted king. He sternly forbade the Muslims from

following practices which were against the shara (Islami law), such as women visiting the graves of saints

or processions being taken out in their memory. He re-imposed the jizyah on the Hindus, and executed a

brahmans for holding that the Hindu and Muslim scriptures were equally sacred. He also demolished a

few well- known Hindu temples during his campaigns, such as the temples at Nagarkot.

Sikandar Lodi gave magnificent grants to scholars, philosophers and men of letters so that cultured

people of all climes and countries, including Arabia and Iran, flocked to his court. Due to the Sultan's

efforts, a number of Sanskrit works were translated into Persian. He was also interested in music and

had a number of rare Sanskrit works on music translated into Persian. During the time, a large number

of Hindus took to learning Persian and were recruited to various administrative posts.

Thus, the process of cultural rapprochement between the Hindus and the Muslims continued apace

during his reign. Sikandar Lodi also extended his dominion by conquering Dholpur and Gwaliyar. It was

during these operations that after careful survey and deliberations, Sikandar Lodi selected the site for

the city of Agra (1506). The town was meant to command the area of eastern Rajasthan and the route to

Malwa and Gujarat. It was also meant to control the rebellious nobles and rulers of the doab. In course

of time, Agra became a large town and the second capital of the Lodis.

The growing interest of Sikandar Lodi in eastern Rajasthan and Malwa was shown by his taking the Khan

of Nagaur under his protection, and by trying to make Ranthambhor transfer its allegiance from Malwa

to Delhi. His successor, Ibrahim Lodi, even led a campaign against Mewar which, as has been noted

earlier, was

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repulsed. The growing power of the Rana in Malwa, and the extension of his powers towards Agra and

Bayana, presaged a conflict between Mewar and the Lodis. It is difficult to say what the outcome of this

conflict would have been if Babur had not intervened.

Kashmir

An account of north India in the fifteenth century would be incomplete without mentioning the

Kingdom of Kashmir. The beautiful valley of Kashmir was for long a forbidden land to all outsiders.

According to Albiruni, entry into Kashmir was not allowed even to the Hindus who were not known

personally to the nobles there. During this period, Kashmir was known to be a centre of Saivism.

However, the situation changed with the ending of the Hindu rule around the middle of the fourteenth

century. The devastating attack on Kashmir in 1320 by the Mongol leader, Dulucha, was a prelude to it.

It is said that Dulucha ordered a wholesale massacre of men, while women and children were enslaved

and sold to the merchants of Central Asia. The towns and villages were ravaged and plundered and set

on fire. The hapless Kashmir government could offer no opposition to these doings, thereby losing all

public sympathy and support.

One hundred years after the Mongol invasion, Zainul Abidin, considered the greatest of the Muslim

monarchs of Kashmir, ascended the throne. Kashmir society had profoundly changed during this period.

There had been a continuous incursion of Muslim saints and refugees from Central Asia into Kashmir,

the Baramula route providing an easy access. Another development was the rise of a series of

remarkable sufi saints called Rishis, who combined some features of Hinduism and Islam. Partly by the

preaching of the saints and partly by force, the lower class population had converted to Islam. To

complete the process, a vehement persecution of the brahmans began in the reign of Sikandar Shah

(1389-1413). The sultan ordered that all brahmans and learned Hindus should become Musalmans or

leave the valley. Their temples were to be destroyed and the idols of gold and silver were to be melted

in order to be used for currency. It is said that these orders were issued at the instance of the king's

minister, Suha Bhatt, who had converted to Islam, and was bent on harassing his former co-religionists.

The situation changed with the accession of Zainul Abidin (1420-70) who had all these orders cancelled.

He conciliated and brought

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back to Kashmir all the non-Muslims who had fled. Those who wanted to revert to Hinduism, or had

pretended to be Muslims in order to save their lives, were given freedom to do as they pleased. He even

restored their libraries and the grants which the Hindus had enjoyed. The temples were also restored.

More than one hundred years later, Abul Fazl noted that Kashmir had one hundred and fifty majestic

temples. It is likely that most of them had been restored by Zainul Abidin. Zainul Abidin continued the

policy of broad toleration in other spheres as well. He abolished jizyah and cow-slaughter, and to

respect the wishes of the Hindus, withdrew the ban on sati. The Hindus occupied many high ranks in his

governments. Thus, Sriya Bhatt was minister of justice and court physician. His first two queens were

Hindus, being the daughters of the Raja of jammu. They were the mothers of all of his four sons. He

married a third wife after their death.

The Sultan was himself a learned man, and composed poetry. He was well versed in Persian, Kashmiri,

Sanskrit and Tibetan languages. He gave patronage to Persian and Sanskrit scholars and, at his instance,

many Sanskrit works such as the Mahabharata and Kalhana's history of Kashmir, Rajatarangini,' were

translated into Persian, and brought up-to-date. He was fond of music, and hearing of this, the Raja of

Gwaliyar sent him two rare Sanksrit works on music.

The Sultan also looked after the economic development of Kashmir. He sent two persons to Samarqand

to learn the art of paper-making and book-binding. He fostered many crafts in Kashmir, such as stonecutting and polishing, bottle-making, gold-beating etc. He also encouraged the art of shawl-making, for

which Kashmir is so famous. Musket-making and the art of manufacturing fireworks had also developed

in Kashmir. The Sultan developed agriculture by making large number of dams, canals and bridges. He

was an enthusiastic builder, his greatest achievement being Zaina Lanka—the artificial island in the

Woolur lake on which he built his palace and a mosque.

Zainul Abidin is still called Bud Shah (the Great Sultan) by the Kashmiris. Though a great warrior, he

defeated the Mongol invasion of Lakakh, conquered the Baltistan area (called Tibbat-i-khurd), and kept

control over Jammu, Rajauri, etc. He, thus, unified the Kashmir kingdom.

The fame of Zainul Abidin had spread far and wide. He was in touch with the leading rulers in the other

parts of India, as also the other leading rulers of Asia.