INDIAN HISTORY THROUGH MAP- PART-U

(1) Ucha

• On left bank of river Indus in Sind province of Pakistan.
• Frontier post during Delhi Sultanate. It remained a subject of constant threat and challenge for Balban, Alauddin Khalji and Md. Bin Tughlaq.
• Mongol seiged it in 1245 but were unsuccessful.Again during Alauddin Khalji, Mongol attack was unseccessful due to brilliant effort of Jafar Khan.
• In 1397, Timur Lung was successful in besieging and plundering it.

(2) Udayagiri Caves (Location near Vidisha in Part V)

• The Udayagiri Caves(total 14) are located a short distance from ancient Besnagar, Udayagiri is about 4 km from the modern town of Vidisha and about 13 km from the Buddhist site of Sanchi. 
• Udayagiri is best known for a series of rock-cut sanctuaries and images excavated into hillside in the early years of the fifth century CE.
• The site has important inscriptions of the Gupta dynasty belonging to the reigns of Chandragupta II (c. 375-415) and Kumaragupta I (c. 415-55).
• Udayagiri has a series of rock-shelters and petroglyphs, ruined buildings, inscriptions, water systems, fortifications and habitation mounds.
• There are a number of places in India with the same name, the most notable being the mountain called Udayagiri at Rajgir in Bihar and the Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves in Odisha.
• The site at Udayagiri Caves was extensively reworked under the patronage of Candragupta II, who ruled the Gupta Empire between c. 380 and 413 CE. Candragupta II did so in order to reflect a new concept of Hindu kingship, in which the monarch was seen as both the paramount sovereign (cakravartin) and the supreme devotee of the god Vișņu(paramabhāgavata).
• Cave 4: It contains a Shiv Linga.
• Cave 5 contains the much-celebrated figure of Viṣṇu in his Varaha or Boar-headed incarnation.The depiction of Varaha symbolised the unification of Northern India under the rule of Candragupta II. In this way, Asher argued that Vāraha's rescue of the Earth from the chaos of the cosmic sea echoed Candragupta II's rescue of Northern India from the political instability and fragmentation that it had experienced prior to the rise of the Gupta Empire.
• In Cave 6, on either side, are figures of Viṣṇu and of Siva Gaṅgadhara, the latter much worn from the falling of water over the image.Durga slaying the Buffalo Demon, one of the earliest representations of the theme in India, figure of seated Ganesa. Aside from this being the oldest datable Ganesa in India, the arrangement, with a guarded sanctum in the centre, Gaṇesa on one side and the mother goddesses on the other, presages the arrangement of temple space in subsequent centuries.
• Cave 8: Inside, the cave is empty apart from a lotus carved in the ceiling and a damaged inscription on the back wall.Amongst all the Gupta inscriptions and antiquities, this is the only record that documents the actual presence of a Gupta king at a particular place.
• The Passage, which starts beside Cave 8, is a unique feature of Udayagiri. It consists of a natural cleft or canyon in the rock running approximately east to west. The lowest set of steps on the right hand side is visibly water-worn and evidently served as a water-cascade in historic times. Shell inscriptions (so-called by modern epigraphy specialists because of their shell-like shape) are engraved on the upper walls of the passage are the largest examples of this kind of writing known in India. The images of the fifth century cut through the Sankha Lipi indicating they pre-date Gupta times. The inscriptions, appear to be names in Sanskrit, had not been fully deciphered until recently. Only a few contain sculptures, mostly of standing Viṣṇu, all of which are damaged.
• Cave 12 consists of a niche containing a standing figure of Narasimha, Vishnu in his 'Lion-man' incarnation. Below on either side are two small standing attendant figures. In the floor below Narsimha there is a short Brahmi inscription.

  

  Narsimha and Ganesh
• Cave 13 contains a figure of Narayana, the recumbent figure of Vishnu resting.Beside the image of Narayaṇa is a kneeling devotee, and it has been argued that this figure is a depiction of Candragupta II himself, symbolising his devotion to Vishnu.

(3) Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves

• Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves are partly natural and partly artificial caves of archaeological, historical and religious importance near the city of Bhubaneswar in Odisha. The caves are situated on two adjacent hills, Udayagiri and Khandagiri, mentioned as Kumari Parvat in the Hathigumpha inscription. Udayagiri has 18 caves while Khandagiri has 15 caves. The art of Udayagiri and Khandagiri, being almost contemporaneous with that of Sanchi, has a striking resemblance to it but at the same time retains its own individuality and advanced technique.
• The caves of Udayagiri and Khandagiri, called lena or leṇa in the inscriptions, were dug out mostly during the reign of Kharavela for the abode of Jaina ascetics. The most important of this group is Ranigumpha in Udayagiri which is a double storeyed monastery.

The famous caves:

Udayagiri Caves

• In Udayagiri, Hathigumpha (cave 14) and Ganeshagumpha (cave 10) are especially well known due to art treasures of their sculptures and reliefs as well as due to their historical importance. Rani ka Naur (Queen's Palace cave, cave 1) is also an extensively carved cave. 
  
• Khandagiri offers a fine view back over Bhubaneswar from its summit. The Ananta cave (cave 3) depicts carved figures of women, elephants, athletes, and geese carrying flowers.

  

  Left top clockwise:1.Sarpagumpha, Udayagiri 2.Baghgumfa,Udayagiri(cave like snake mouth)3. Cave Monastery in Khandagiri

• The Hathigumpha cave has the Hathigumpha inscription, written by Raja Kharavela, the king of Kalinga, during the 2nd century BCE. The Hathigumpha inscription incised in deep cut Brahmi letters. It faces the rock edicts of Asoka at Dhauli, situated about six miles away.
• There are some other minor Brahmi inscriptions in the twin hillocks of Udayagiri and Khandagiri.
• Mancapuri cave inscription in Devanagari script
• Sarpagumpha cave inscription in Devanagari script.
• Anantgumpha inscription in Oriya.

(3) Udaipur

Udaipur

• Udaipur was founded in 1559 by Maharana Udai Singh II as the shifting here the capital of Mewar kingdom from Chittorgarh. In November 1567, the Mughal emperor Akbar attacked & laid siege of the venerated fort of Chittor.
• As the Mughal empire weakened, the Sisodia ranas, and later maharanas (also called the Guhilots or Suryavansh), who had always tried to oppose Mughal dominance, reasserted their independence and recaptured most of Mewar except for Chittor. Udaipur remained the capital of the state, which became a princely state of British India in 1818. Being a mountainous region and unsuitable for heavily armoured Mughal horses, Udaipur remained safe from Mughal influence in spite of much pressure. 

(4) Ujjain

• By the 6th century BC, the large kingdom of Avanti, with its capital at Ujjaini, is mentioned in Buddhist literature as one of the four great powers along with Vatsa, Kosala and Magadha. The Northern black polished ware found their way to the northern Deccan from the Gangetic plains through Ujjain.
• The articles of export to the western Asia such as precious stones and pearls, scents and spices, perfumes, silks and muslin, reached the port of Brighukachcha from the remote north through Ujjain. All this finds description in the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea, an account of an unknown Greek merchant who made a voyage to India in the second half of the 1st century AD. 
• The earliest known epigraphic record of the Paramaras, the Harsola Granth, issued at the beginning of the 10th century. The early Paramara chiefs of Malwa were probably vassals of the Rastrakutas. The Udaypur Prasati, mentions Vakpati Vakpati I as the king of Avanti and it was probably in his region that the Rastrakuta Indra III halted at Ujjain while advancing with his army against the Pratihara Mahipala I.
• From the 9th to the 12th centuries, the Paramaras became so identified with Ujjain that subsequent tradition has converted Vikramaditya into a Paramara. The last Paramara ruler, Siladitya, was captured alive by the Sultans of Mandu, and Ujjain passed into the hands of the Muslims.
• Thus began a long era of misfortune and decay and the ancient glory of Ujjayini was lost in a morass of repeated inroads of attacking hordes. The invasion of Ujjain by Iltutmish in 1234 triggered off a systematic desecration and despoiling of temples. This tide of destruction was stemmed only in the time of Baz Bahadur of Mandu. The Mughal rule heralded a new era in reconstruction. Emperor Akbar put an end to Baz Bahadur's hegemony over Malwa and had a city wall constructed for the defense of Ujjain.The Nadi Darwaza, Kaliadeh Darwaza, Sati Darwaza, Dewas Darwaza and Indore Darwaza were the various entrances to the city. 
• In 1658 took place a battle near Ujjain in which Aurangzeb and Murad defeated Maharaja Jaswant Singh of Jodhpur, who was fighting on behalf of Prince Dara. The actual scene of the battle is Dharmatpura renamed Fatehbad by Aurangzeb, after the victory.
•  In the reign of Mahmud Shah, Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh was made the Governor of Malwa. A great scholar of astronomy, he had the observatory at Ujjain reconstructed and built several temples.
• At the beginning of the 17th century, Ujjain and Malwa went through another period of seizure and invasion at the hands of the Marathas, who gradually captured the entire region. The Maratha domination of Malwa gave impetus to a cultural renaissance in the region and modern Ujjain came into being. Most of the temples of Ujjain were constructed during this period.
• It was during this time that Ujjain became the meeting ground of painters of the Poona and Kangra styles. The impact of the two different styles of painting is distinctive.
• In the Maratha period, the art of wood work also developed. Wood carvings were done on the galleries and balconies.
• Ujjain finally passed into the hands of the Scindias in 1750 and until 1810, when Daulat Rao Scindia founded his new capital at Gwalior, it was the chief town of his dominions. The shifting of the capital to Gwalior led to a decline in the commercial importance of Ujjain.
• Ujjain enjoyed great importance in the battle for the empire and the constant struggle for supremacy. Political importance was compounded by the economic factor of Ujjain being situated on the main artery of trade between the North, the South and the West. This in turn contributed to Ujjain acquiring a cultural splendour of its own which is equaled by very few other cities in India.
• The names of Kalidasa and Ujjayini are inextricably linked in Meghdoot, a poem describes the anguish of ayaksha, separated from his beloved by a curse.
• Aurangzeb gave numerous grants to temples belying tales of intense religious bigotry, which are preserved to this day by the families of the priests.
• It is believed that there was once a majestic Sun temple at this site.
• A fragmented inscription of this place records the building of the palace in 1458, in the time of Mahmud Khilji. The tanks were constructed all around to keep the temperature very low by Sultan Nasiruddin Khilji, the Sultan of Malwa in the 16th century, because he was in the habit of taking mercury which is hot.
• Saivism, Vaishnavism and their various cults and sects, Jainism and Buddhism, have found a niche in this ancient city. The Siddha and the Natha cults which were offshoots of Tantricism, also flourished in Ujjain.
• The idol of Mahakaleshwar is known to be Dakshinamurti, facing the south. This is a unique feature upheld by tantric traditions to be found only in Mahakaleshwar among the 12 Jyotirlingas. The idol of Omkareshwar Shiva is consecrated in the sanctum above the Mahakal shrine. The images of Ganesh, Parvati and Karttikeya are installed in the west, north and east of the sanctum sanctorum. To the south is the image of Nandi. The idol of Nagchandreshwar on the third storey is open for darshan only on the day of Nag Panchami. On the day of Mahashivaratri, a huge fair is held near the temple and worship goes on through the night.

(5) Uraiyur

• Urayur is a neighborhood of Tiruchirapalli. It was the capital of the early Cholas. This location is also known as Thirukkozhi, Nikalaapuri, Uranthai, and Kozhiyur. It has a history dating back to before 2 BCE.
• There is definite mention of the Cholas, whose founder was Vijayalaya and their capital in Asokan inscriptions in Orissa. Inscriptions and rock edicts of Ashoka and the Satavahanas describe.
• Urayur was an ancient Chola city with a fortress and city wall on the southern banks of the river Kaveri. The Imperial Cholas of the 9th century CE later made Tanjavur their capital, and Urayur slowly lost its place in the Chola administration.

(6) Utnur

• Earliest neolithic site in south India(2900-2400 BCE): Utnur,Pallavoy,Kodekal, and Watgal.Utnur is in Mahbubnagar district in AP. Wooden enclosure of cattle pen here was rebuilt several times and dung within it was burnt repeatedly.The size of enclosure indicates that it could have held more than 500 cattle.
• Small amount of ground stone axes, stone blades and a handmade coarse pottery(burnished grey or buffed ware usually plain) found.Material culture of Utnur is similar to sites such as Piklihal(2100 BCE) and Kodekal.

(7) Uttaramerur / Uthiramerur / Uttiramerur

• Uttiramerur is located 35 km from Kanchipuram. It was ruled by the Pallavas, the Cholas, the Pandyas, the Sambuvarayars, the Vijayanagara Rayas and the Nayaks.
• It is known for its temples, built by the Pallavas and Cholas.The town is a home for one of the famous hindu temples called Uthiramerur Sundara Varada Perumal temple. This temple is about 1200 years old and is said to have been constructed under the palallava king Nandhi Varma Pallava. The main deity in this temple is Lord Sundara Varada Perumal. This temple has numerous inscriptions — those of the great Raja Raja Chola (985-1015 A.D.), his able son, Rajendra Chola and the Vijayanagar emperor Krishnadevaraya.

Uttaramerur Inscription and Local Self Governance:

• Stone edicts and carvings found in Uthiramerur have shown clues of local self governance during Chola imperial period. The elections were held by a method called Kudavolai. The edicts are called Uthiramerur Kalvettu after the place. On the walls of the village assembly (grama sabha mandapa), which was a rectangular structure made of granite slabs, are inscriptions saying that the village had an electoral system and a written constitution prescribing the mode of elections. This inscription, dated around 920 A.D. in the reign of Parantaka Chola.
• The Cholas divided their empire into convenient units for administration. Mandalam, kurram, nadu, perur, sirur were some of the local administration units. The provinces were governed by viceroy's usually senior members of the royal family.
• It is the village administration which is mentioned specially and in great detail by Chola epigraphs. The two Uttaramerur inscriptions of the days of Parantaka I give detailed information regarding the functioning of the sabha, a Brahmin village.
• There were two kinds of autonomous villages known to Chola times. One was the village exclusively inhabited by Brahmins and called a sabha and the other was either mixed village or a completely non-brahmanical village called an Ur.
• Our information relates only to sabhas. It may be pure accident that all the inscriptions speaking of village autonomous institutions happen to be Brahmin villages; it may be that the Brahmins alone were interested in leaving permanent record of their public activities; or it may be that the Ur also was governed exactly like the sabha.
• The details of village administration one gets in the Uttaramerur inscriptions are anticipated in an earlier record found in the Pandyan country and known as the Manur inscription. The Brahmin settlements were called agraharas or chaturvedimangalams and they were ruled by a general assembly called the sabha. The Uttaramerur inscriptions record the resolutions of the sabha regarding the constitution of the Variyams or the committees.
• The village was divided into wards known as kudumbus. In a certain case the village consisted of 30 wards. Representatives of kudumbus made up the assembly. 
• Qualification: Several qualifications were prescribed for membership of the committees. The qualifications related to ownership of property, residence in the locality, age between 35 and 70, well conversant with busines and virtuous and knowledge of the Vedas.
• Disqualification: If one had served previously on a committee during three preceding years it was a disqualification. Officials who had not submitted their accounts(their relatives will also get disqualified), sinners, guilty of incest, theft, taking bribes, who has taken forbidden dishes, were disqualified from office.
• Mode of Election: The names of persons nominated for selection out of the eligible list were written on strips of cudgeon leaves and these were put into a pot from out of which one would be extracted by a young boy.
• This was not election by ballot but selection by lot. The strip was called kudavolai. After the committees were so formed duties were assigned to them. Different committees were called the variyapperumakkal.
• Annual Committee (most learned men),Garden committee,Tank committee(It will oversee irrigation). The last two committees shall be chosen by showing the Karai(lot).Men of these three committees shall hold office for one year and then retire.
• Pancavara and Gold Committees will will selected by lot from pot method.
• Removal of Persons Found Guilty: When one who is on the committee is found guilty of any offence, he shall be removed at once: for appointing the committees after these have retired, the members of the Committee “for Supervision of Justice” in the twelve streets of Uttaramerur shall convene an assembly kuri with the help of the Arbitrator. The committees shall be appointed by drawing pot-tickets according to this order of settlement.
• Qualification of the Accountant: Any Arbitrator who possesses honest earnings shall write the accounts of the village.
• King's Order: Thus, from this year onwards, as long as the moon and the sun endure, committees shall always be appointed by pot-tickets alone. To this effect was the royal letter received and shown to us graciously issued by Lord of Gods, the emperor, the glorious Parakesarivarman.
• Officer Present: Royal officer will be present while making settlements.
• Villager’s Decision: We, the members of the assembly of Uttaramerur Caturvedimangalam, made this settlement for the prosperity of our village in order that wicked men may perish and the rest may prosper.