INDIAN HISTORY THROUGH MAP- PART-L

(1) Lahuradeva

• In Kabir Nagar district, UP
• Early innovations associated with the ceramic types and other.
• Artefacts and cereal domestications and some sort of cultivations at quite early age (7th millennium BC). Appearance of morphologically distinct form of rice.
• There is a possibility that people living in Ganga Plain since late palaeolithic and interacted with communities living in the Vindhyas, Himalayas and other areas.

(2) Lakhajoar

• In MP.
• Cave painting( animal paintings) of Mesolithic period
• Other similar site in MP are Jaora, kathotia, Kharwar.

(3) Lakhmir Wala

• Manso district, Punjab.
• Mature Harappan Site, bigger than Mohenjodaro.

(4) Lahore

• Lahore successively served as a regional capital of the empires of the Shahi kingdoms in the 11th century, the Ghaznavids in the 12th century, the Ghurid State in the 12th and 13th centuries and the Mughal Empire in the 16th century. From 1802 to 1849, Lahore served as the capital city of the Sikh Empire. In the mid-19th and early 20th century, Lahore was the capital of the Punjab region under the British Raj.
• Lahore is referred to as the cultural heart of Pakistan. It is referred to as the "Mughal City of Gardens".
• Mughal structures such as the Badshahi Mosque, Lahore Fort, Shalimar Gardens, mausolea of Jehangir and Nur Jahan, Chauburji Gate, the walled city . 
• Lahore is also home to many British colonial structures built in the Indo-Saracenic style, 
• It is also an important religious centre as it is home to hundreds of temples, mosques, churches and shrines like Data Durbar Complex(one of the oldest Muslim shrines in South Asia. It houses the remains of a Sufi saint, Abul Hassan Ali Hajvery known as Daata Ganj Baksh, 11th century)

(5) Lal-batai

• In Swat Valley.
• Grave site and associated culture have been found.

(6) Lalitgiri

• Lalitgiri (Oriya: Naltigiri) is a Buddhist complex in Odisha comprising major stupas and monasteries (viharas), similar to Ratnagiri and, together with Ratnagiri and Udayagiri, part of Puspagiri University.
• The remains of a huge stupa, and relic caskets consisting four containers made of khondalite, steatite, silver and gold were discovered along with other important structure and archaeological remains.
• Some relics bear resemblance to Gandhara School  of Art. The Ashokan Brahmi script, unique pieces of pottery, inscriptions from the Kushan era.

(7) Langhnaj

• Langhnaj is a village in Mehsana district in the state of Gujarat, Bones of wild animals dating back to the Mesolithic period (2550-2185 BCE) have been excavated. The presence of wild cattle has also been suggested. The animals bones at Langhnaj suggest that the area was covered by a combination of savannah and forest with interspersed wetlands.
• A historic temple of Pimpleshwar Mahadev, Saldi is 4 km from here. Another temple that is often attended by the Langhnaj community is Shiv-Sampraday-Nilkanth Mehadev temple. There is another temple that is a two story and three shikhar Jain-Derasar (temple). 

(8) Lalkot

• The Tomar dynasty founded Lal Kot near Mehrauli in 736. The Prithviraj Raso names the Tomar Anangpal as the founder of Lal Kot, whose name is inscribed on Iron Pillar of Delhi at Qutb complex, ascribed to Chandra or Chandragupta II.
• The Chauhan kings of Ajmer conquered Lal Kot in 1180 and renamed it Qila Rai Pithora after Prithvi Raj Chauhan (also known as Rai Pithora). It was a thirteen-gated fort in Delhi. 

(9) Lauriya-Nandangarh

• West Chmparan district of Bihar
• Ruin of a huge stupa
• Ashokan pillar which is a single block of polished sandstone. The top is bell shaped with a circular abacus ornamented with Brahmi geese supporting the statue of a lion.

(10) Leh

• Leh was an important stopover on trade routes along the Indus Valley between Tibet to the east, Kashmir to the west and also between India and China for centuries. The main goods carried were salt, grain, pashm or cashmere wool, indigo, silk yarn.
• Little is actually known of the history of the region before the formation of the kingdom towards the end of the 10th century by the Tibetan prince, a grandson of the anti-Buddhist Tibetan king, Langdarma (838 to 841).Langdarma's opposition to Buddhism had disappeared.
• During the reign of Delegs Namgyal (1660–1685),the Nawab of Kashmir, which was then a province in the Mogul Empire, arranged for the Mongol army to temporarily leave Ladakh (though it returned later). As payment for assisting Delegs Namgyal in the Tibet-Ladakh-Mughal war of 1679–1684, the Nawab made demand to build a large Sunni Muslim mosque in Leh.The mosque reflects a mixture of Islamic and Tibetan architecture. 
• The first Englishman to reach Leh was William Moorcroft (explorer) in 1820.
• The first recorded royal residence in Ladakh, built at the top of the high Namgyal ('Victory') Peak overlooking the present palace and town, is the now-ruined fort built by King Tashi Namgyal in the final quarter of the 16th century CE.
• The Namgyal (also called "Tsemo Gompa" = 'Red Gompa'), a temple, is the main Buddhist centre in Leh. 
• Chamba (Maitreya) and Chenresi (Avalokiteshvara) monasteries which are of uncertain date.
• The royal palace, known as Leh Palace, was built by King Sengge Namgyal (1612–1642), presumably between the period when the Portuguese Jesuit priest, Francisco de Azevedo, visited Leh in 1631 and Sengge Namgyal's death in 1642.

(11) Lekhakia

• In Mirzapur district, UP.
• Rock shelters with blade tools and microliths.

(12) Lepakshi

• Lepakshi is a small village in the Anantapur District of Andhra Pradesh. 
• Lepakshi is historically and archaeologically significant, with three shrines dedicated to Shiva, Vishnu and Veerabhadra. These shrines were built during the Vijayanagara Kings' period (1336–1646)
• The place is also known for mural paintings of the Vijayanagar Kings. Many old Kannada inscriptions dating back centuries can also be seen on its walls. 
• The famous Veerabhadra temple dedicated to Veerabhadra is located here. Built by the brothers Viranna and Virupanna, the temple is a notable example of the Vijayanagar architectural style.It is renowned for its sculptures, which were created by the artisans of the Vijayanagara empire. The intricate mandapams of the temple has large pillars with life-size images of dancers, musicians and other sculptures. A huge monolithic granite Nandi bull(second largest monolith in India, afterGomateshwara), is also present near the temple. The ceilings are decorated by mural paintings. On the walls of this temple, several stories like the Mahabharatha and the Ramayana are sculpted. The paintings on the roof are done in natural pigments.

Following figures show Veerbhadra temple's (1)Gopuram (2)carved pillars(3) Nandi

(13) Loe banr

• Cemetery site(Gandhara Grave Culture)
• Neolithic site associated with wheel mafe painted ware,terracotta human and animal figurines and objects of copper and iron.
• Evidence of pig, and some wheat and barley.

(14) Lohanda Nala

• Belan valley, UP
• Upper Palaeolithic carved bone object has been identified as mother goddess. 

(15) Loteshwar

• Loteshwar is an archeological site belonging to Indus Valley Civilisation located at Mahesana District, Gujarat. 
• Loteshwar is recognised as ancient site occupied since sixth millennium BCE by hunter gatherer community and by fourth millennium BCE domestic animals like sheep and goat were also kept.
• The excavation revealed two different cultural periods with Period I belonging to Monolithic culture and Period II belonging to culture with affinity to Harappan culture.

Period I

• Period I, yielded large number of microlithic tools, flat sandstone palettes, grinding stones and hammer stones.Tools were made of chert, jasper, agate and quarts.
• Two burials were also found.

Period II

• Large number of pits which were invariably filled ashy soil, potshreds, animal bones and other insignificant materials were found.
• Pottery collection from this site was predominated by gritty red ware and red ware, which were analogous in shape and style with similar pottery found at Nagwada and coarse redware and polycrome pottery found at Surkotada.Red ware was usually well fired and made of fine clay.

Artefacts

• Bowls and pots with shades of black and red on cream/white background, coarse red ware and grey ware with incised designs, terrecotta pinched type lumps, mushtika type lumps, steatite micro beads, agate beads, carnelian beads etc. Terrecotta objects found at this site included a figurine, bangles, clay lumps with impressions of reed etc.

Culture

• Pottery found at Loteshwar indicate a different type of culture, distinct from Amri-Nal pottery. Ceramics found here are recognised to be of different nature from those of early Harappan period and suggest earlier pot-making activity in this area.

Other findings are large amount of funeral remains in the form of skeletal remains of land animals like sheep, goat and cattle and fish as well as turtle.

(16) Lothal

• Lothal is one of the most prominent cities of the ancient Indus valley civilisation dating from 2400 BCE. 
• Before the arrival of Harappan people (2400 BCE), Lothal was a small village next to the river providing access to the mainland from the Gulf of Khambhat. An indigenous micaceous Red Ware culture also existed, which is believed to pre-Harappan.The indigenous people maintained a prosperous economy, attested by the discovery of copper objects, beads and semi-precious stones. Ceramic wares were of fine clay and smooth, micaceous red surface. A new technique of firing pottery under partly oxidising and reducing conditions was improved by them—designated black-and-red ware, to the micaceous Red Ware. Harappans were attracted to Lothal for its sheltered harbour, rich cotton and rice-growing environment and bead-making industry. The settlers lived peacefully with the Red Ware people, who adopted their lifestyle, evidenced from the flourishing trade and changing working techniques. Harappans began producing the indigenous ceramic goods, adopting the manner from the natives.
• Lothal's dock—the world's earliest known, connected the city to an ancient course of the Sabarmati river on the trade route between Harappan cities in Sindh and the peninsula of Saurashtra when the surrounding Kutch desert of today was a part of the Arabian Sea. 
• It was a vital and thriving trade centre in ancient times, with its trade of beads, gems and valuable ornaments reaching the far corners of West Asia and Africa.
• A coastal route existed linking sites such as Lothal and Dholavira to Sutkagan Dor on the Makran coast.
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• The meaning of Lothal in Gujarati to be "the mound of the dead" is, as the name of the city of Mohenjo-daro in Sindhi means the same.
• After the core of the Indus civilisation had decayed in Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, Lothal thrived for many years. Its constant threats - tropical storms and floods - caused immense destruction, which destabilised the culture and ultimately caused its end. At the time of its demise, the region suffered from aridity or weakened monsoon rainfall. Thus the cause for the abandonment of the city may have been changes in the climate as well as natural disasters. 
• An ancient, meandering river adjacent to Lothal, an ancient extension of the northern river channel bed of a tributary of the Bhogavo river. Small channel widths when compared to the lower reaches suggest the presence of a strong tidal influence upon the city. Upstream elements of this river provided a suitable source of freshwater for the inhabitants.

Town planning:

• Lothal planners engaged themselves to protect the area from consistent floods. The town was divided into blocks of 1–2-metre-high platforms of sun-dried bricks, each serving 20–30 houses of thick mud and brick walls. 
• The city was divided into a citadel and a lower town.Acropolis and lower town
• The rulers of the town lived in the citadel, which featured paved baths, underground and surface drains (built of kiln-fired bricks) and a potable water well. The bricks used for paving baths were polished to prevent seepage. The pavements were lime-plastered and edges were wainscoted (wooden panels) by thin walls. Acropolis was the town centre, its political and commercial heart.The four sides of the rectangular platform on which houses were built are formed by mud-brick structures.The remains of this house give evidence to a sophisticated drainage system.
• The lower town was subdivided into two sectors. Main commercial area flanked by shops of rich and ordinary merchants and craftsmen. The residential area was located to either side of the marketplace.Built in straight rows on either side of the street are residences and workshops. The street maintained a uniform width. There are multiple two-roomed shops and workplaces of coppersmiths and blacksmiths

Lower Town

• All the construction were made of fire dried bricks,lime and sand mortar.

Main Well

Well and city drainage system

Bathroom-toilet structure

Economy and urban culture:

• The uniform organisation of the town and its institutions give evidence that the Harappans were a very disciplined people. Commerce and administrative duties were performed according to standards laid out. Municipal administration was strict – the width of most streets remained the same over a long time, and no encroached structures were built. 
• Householders possessed a collection chamber to deposit solid waste in order to prevent the clogging of city drains. Drains, manholes and cesspools kept the city clean and deposited the waste in the river, which was washed out during high tide. 
• A new provincial style of Harappan art and painting was pioneered. The new approaches included realistic portrayals of animals in their natural surroundings. Metal ware, gold and jewellery and tastefully decorated ornaments attest to the culture and prosperity of the people of Lothal.
• Most of their equipment: metal tools, weights, measures, seals, earthenware and ornaments were of the uniform standard and quality found across the Indus civilization.
• Lothal was a major trade centre, importing en masse raw materials like copper, chert and semi-precious stones from Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, and mass distributing to inner villages and towns. 
• It also produced large quantities of bronze celts, fish-hooks, chisels, spears and ornaments. Lothal exported its beads, gemstones, ivory and shells. 
• The stone blade industry catered to domestic needs—fine chert was imported from the Sukkur valley or from Bijapur in modern Karnataka. Bhagatrav supplied semi-precious stones while chank shell came from Dholavira and Bet Dwarka. An intensive trade network gave the inhabitants great prosperity. The network stretched across the frontiers to Egypt, Bahrain and Sumer. One of the evidence of trade in Lothal is the discovery of typical Persian gulf seals, a circular button seal.

Architectural development:

• Natural catastrophes, specifically floods and storms as the source of Lothal's downfall. Houses were rebuilt, yet without removal of flood debris, which made them poor-quality and susceptible to further damage. Public drains were replaced by soakage jars. The heavily damaged warehouse was never repaired properly, and stocks were stored in wooden canopies, exposed to floods and fire. The economy of the city was transformed. Trade volumes reduced greatly and resources were available in lesser quantities. Independent businesses caved, allowing a merchant-centric system of factories to develop where hundreds of craftsmen worked for the same supplier and financier. The bead factory had ten living rooms and a large workplace courtyard. The coppersmith's workshop had five furnaces and paved sinks to enable multiple artisans to work.
• The declining prosperity of the town, paucity of resources and poor administration increased the woes of a people pressured by consistent floods and storms. Increased salinity of soil made the land inhospitable to life, including crops. This is evidenced in adjacent cities of Rangpur, Rojdi, Rupar and Harappa in Punjab, Mohenjo-daro and Chanhudaro inSindh. A massive flood (1900 BCE) completely destroyed the flagging township in a single stroke. The population fled to inner regions.

Later Harappan culture:

• The site continued to be inhabited, albeit by a much smaller population devoid of urban influences.That they were the Harappan peoples is evidenced by the analyses of their remains in the cemetery. While the trade and resources of the city were almost entirely gone, the people retained several Harappan ways in writing, pottery and utensils. About this time, a mass movement of refugees from Punjab and Sindh into Saurashtra and to the valley of Sarasvati (1900–1700 BCE) was recorded. Hundreds of ill-equipped settlements have been attributed to this people as Late Harappans a completely de-urbanised culture characterised by rising illiteracy, less complex economy, unsophisticated administration. Though Indus seals went out of use, the system of weights with an 8.573 gram unit was retained. 
• Between 1700 and 1600 BCE, trade would revive again. In Lothal, Harappan ceramic works of bowls, dishes and jars were mass-produced. Merchants used local materials such as chalcedony instead of chert for stone blades. Truncated sandstone weights replaced hexahedron chert weights. The sophisticated painting style reduced itself to wavy lines, loops and fronds. Lothal was especially famous for its micro-beads.

Science and engineering:

• A thick ring-like shell object found with four slits each in two margins served as a compass to measure angles on plane surfaces or in the horizon in multiples of 40 degrees, up to 360 degrees. Such shell instruments were probably invented to measure 8–12 whole sections of the horizon and sky, explaining the slits on the lower and upper margins. This is evidence that the Lothal experts had achieved something 2,000 years before the Greeks: an 8–12 fold division of horizon and sky, as well as an instrument for measuring angles and perhaps the position of stars, and for navigation. 
• Lothal contributes one of three measurement scales that are integrated and linear (others found in Harappa and Mohenjodaro). An ivory scale from Lothal has the smallest-known decimal divisions in Indus civilisation.
• For their renowned draining system, Lothal engineers provided corbelled roofs, and an apron of kiln-fired bricks over the brick face of the platform where the sewerage entered the cesspool. Wooden screens inserted in grooves in the side drain walls held back solid waste. 
• The well is built of radial bricks. It had an immaculate network of underground drains, silting chambers and cesspools, and inspection chambers for solid waste. 
• In most cases, the bricks were in ratio 1:0.5:0.25 which were integral multiples of large graduations of Lothal scale of 25 mm (1.0 in).

Religion and disposal of the dead:

• The people of Lothal worshipped a fire god, speculated to be the horned deity depicted on seals, which is also evidenced by the presence of private and public fire-altars . 
• Archaeologists have discovered gold pendants, charred ashes of terra-cotta cakes and pottery, bovine remains, beads and other signs that may indicate the practice of the sacrifice, associated with the ancient Vedic religion. 
• Animal worship is also evidenced, but not the worship of the Mother Goddess that is evidenced in other Harappan cities—a sign of the existence of diversity in religious traditions. However, it is believed that a sea goddess, perhaps cognate with the general Indus-era Mother Goddess, was worshipped.
• It is also considered that given the small number of graves discovered—only 17 in an estimated population of 15,000—the citizens of Lothal also practised cremation of the dead. Post-cremation burials have been noted in other Indus sites like Harappa, Mehi and Damb-Bhuti.

Metallurgy and jewellery:

• Lothal copper is unusually pure, lacking the arsenic typically used by coppersmiths across the rest of the Indus valley. The city importedingots from probable sources in the Arabian peninsula. Workers mixed tin with copper for the manufacture of celts, arrowheads, fishhooks, chisels, bangles, rings, drills and spearheads, although weapon manufacturing was minor.
• They also employed advanced metallurgy in following the cire perdue technique of casting. They also invented new tools such as curved saws and twisted drills unknown to other civilisations at the time.
• Lothal was one of the most important centres of production for shell-working, owing to the abundance of chank shell of high quality found in the Gulf of Kutch and near the Kathiawar coast Gamesmen, beads, unguent vessels, chank shells, ladles and inlays were made for export and local consumption. Components of stringed musical instruments like the plectrum and the bridge were made of shell. 
• An ivory workshop was operated under official supervision, and the domestication of elephants has been suggested. An ivory seal, and sawn pieces for boxes, combs, rods, inlays and ear-studs were found.
• Lothal produced a large quantity of gold ornaments—the most attractive item being microbeads of gold in five strands in necklaces. 
• Cylindrical, globular and jasper beads of gold with edges at right angles resemble modern pendants used by women in Gujarat in plaits of hair. 
• A large disc with holes recovered from a sacrificial altar is compared to the rukma worn by Vedic priests. A ring of thin copper wire turned into double spirals resembles the gold-wire rings used by modern Hindus for weddings.

Art:

• The discovery of etched carnelian beads and non-etched barrel beads in Kish and Ur (modern Iraq), Jalalabad (Afghanistan) and Susa(Iran) attest to the popularity of the Indus bead industry across West Asia.The lapidaries select stones of variegated colours, producing beads of different shapes and sizes. Modern bead makers in the Khambhat area follow the same technique. 
• Double-eye beads of agate and collared or gold-capped beads of jasper and carnelian beads are among those attributed as uniquely from Lothal. 
• It was very famous for micro-cylindrical beads of steatite. 
• The Lothal excavation yielded 213 seals, third in volume amongst all Indus sites. Seal-cutters preferred short-horned bulls, mountain goats, tigers and composite animals like the elephant-bull for engravings. There is a short inscription of intaglio in almost every seal. 
• Stamp seals with copper rings inserted in a perforated button were used to sealing cargo, with impressions of packing materials like mats, twisted cloth and cords, a fact verified only at Lothal. Quantitative descriptions, seals of rulers and owners were stamped on goods. 
• A unique seal found here is from Bahrain—circular, with motif of a dragon flanked by jumping gazelles.
• Lothal offers two new types of potter work, a convex bowl with or without stud handle, and a small jar with flaring rim, both in the micaceous Red Ware period, not found in contemporary Indus cultures. 
• Lothal artists introduced a new form of realistic painting. Paintings depict animals in their natural surroundings. On one large vessel, the artist depicts birds with fish in their beaks, resting in a tree, while a fox-like animal stands below. This scene bears resemblance to the story of The Fox and the Crow in the Panchatantra.  On a miniature jar, the story of the thirsty crow and deer is depicted – of how the deer could not drink from the narrow-mouth of the jar, while the crow succeeded by dropping stones in the jar.
• A complete set of terra-cotta gamesmen, has been found in Lothal—animal figures, pyramids with ivory handles and castle-like objects. The realistic portrayal of human beings and animals suggests a careful study of anatomical and natural features. The bust of a male with slit eyes, sharp nose and square-cut beard is reminiscent of Sumerian figures, especially stone sculptures from Mari. In images of men and women, muscular and physical features are sharp, prominently marked. Animal figures with wheels and a movable head may have been utilised as toys.

Dockyard:

• Lothal engineers accorded high priority to the creation of a dockyard and a warehouse to serve the purposes of naval trade. The dock was located away from the main current of the river to avoid silting, but provided access to ships in high tide as well. The warehouse was built close to the acropolis(citadel) on a 3.5-metre-high podium of mud bricks. Facilitating the movement of cargo was a mud brick wharf, 220 metres long, built on the western arm of the dock, with a ramp leading to the warehouse. 

Warehouse



Dock

• Harappans must have possessed great knowledge relating to tides in order to build such a dock on the ever-shifting course of the Sabarmati, as well as exemplary hydrography and maritime engineering.This knowledge enabled them to select Lothal's location in the first place, as the Gulf of Khambhat has the highest tidal amplitude and ships can be sluiced through flow tides in the river estuary. 
• Another assessment is that the basin could have served as an irrigation tank, for the estimated original dimensions of the "dock" are not large enough, by modern standards, to house ships and conduct much traffic.

(17) Lucknow

(18) Lumbini

• Lumbinī  is a Buddhist pilgrimage site in the Rupandehi District of Nepal. In the Buddha's time, Lumbini was situated between Kapilavastu and Devadaha (both in Nepal).It is the place where, according to Buddhist tradition, Queen Mayadevi gave birth to Siddhartha Gautama in 623 BCE.
• Also located there is the Puskarini or Holy Pond (below left figure with Bodhi tree) where the Buddha's mother took the ritual dip prior to his birth. 
• Lumbini was granted World Heritage status by UNESCO.
• A pillar (below right figure)now marks the spot of Ashoka's visit to Lumbiní. According to an inscription on the pillar, it was placed there by the people then in charge of the park to commemorate Ashoka's visit and gifts.[10] The park was previously known as Rummindei, two miles north of Bhagavanpura.
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• Recent excavations beneath existing brick structures at the Mayadevi Temple at Lumbini have uncovered evidence for an older timber structure, which was constructed during the Ashokan era. The layout of the Ashokan shrine closely follows that of the earlier timber structure, which suggests a continuity of worship at the site.

(19) Lundewali
In Pakistan, Punjab

• The Cemetary-H culture is represented at Harappa. Here at lower Cemetary-H levels, the graves consisted mostly of extended burials. The pottery showed some continuity with earlier levels, but there are also some new forms and designs.In the upper level, urn burials with disarticulated(separated at joint) bones. There was large settlements in the Cemetary-H phase like Lurewala, Lundewali, Gamuwala Ther, and Shahiwala etc. Number of sites dropper from mature harappan to late harappan. There was decline in number of industrial sites and increase in multi-funstional sites combining habitation with craft production. The decline in settlements was due to drying up of Hakra river.