INDIAN HISTORY THROUGH MAP- PART-J

(1)Jagannathpuri 

(2)Jahazpur 

(3)Jaisalmer 

(4)Jajnagar:

(5)Jakhera:

• On left bank of Kalinadi near Kasganj(Etah district).Following cultural sequences:
• Period1:Occurance of OCP
• Period2: Unpainted black and red,black slipper and red ware.
• Period3A: Proto PGW by introduction of iron and traditional black  painting on pottery
• Period3B: Mature PGW represented by Hastinapur Noh,Atranjikhera
• Period4: Co-occurence of NBW and PGW ware
• Hastinapur, Ahichhatra, Kausambi, Atranjikhera, Kampit and Jakhera indicates material culture associated with PGW reflects an urbal, semiurban and proto-urban way of life.

(6)Jalalabad/Nagarhara:

Stupa in Mes Aynak near Jalalabad

•  The Jalalabad territory fell to the Maurya Empire, which was led by Chandragupta Maurya.Seleucus is said to have reach a peace treaty with Chandragupta by given control of the territory south of the Hindu Kush to the Mauryas.Alexander took these away from the Indo-Aryans and established settlements of his own, but Seleucus Nicator gave them to Sandrocottus (Chandragupta), upon terms of intermarriage and of receiving in exchange 500 elephants.

• Buddhist heritage is recorded through wide-ranging archeological finds, including religious and artistic remnants. Buddhist doctrines are reported to have reached as far as Balkh even during the life of the Buddha (563 BCE to 483 BCE), as recorded by Husang Tsang. 

• Faxian visited and worshiped the sacred Buddhist sites such as of The Shadow of the Buddha in Nagarhara (modern Jalalabad).
• In 630 AD Xuan Zang, the famous Chinese Buddhist monk, visited Jalalabad and a number of other locations nearby. The city was a major center of Gandhara's Greco-Buddhist culture in the past until it was conquered by Muslim Arabs in the 7th century. 
• The region became part of the Afghan Ghaznavid Empire in the 10th century and later Ghurids until the Mongols invaded the area. It then became part of the Timurids.
• The modern city gained prominence during the reign of Babur, founder of the Mughal Empire. Babur had chosen the site for this city which was built by his grandson Akbar in 1570.

(8) Jalore

• It was a flourishing town in the 8th century. Jalore was ruled by the Paramaras in the 10th century. Kirtipala, the youngest son of Alhana, ruler of Nadol, was the founder of the Jalore line of Chauhans. He captured it from the Parmars in 1181 and took the clan name Songara, after the place.
• During the reign of Kanhad Dev Songara, Jalor was attacked and destroyed in 1311 by Ala ud din Khilji, Sultan of Delhi. The Muslim rulers of Palanpur in Gujarat briefly ruled Jalor in the 16th century and it became part of the Mughal Empire. It was restored to Marwar in 1704, and remained part of the kingdom until shortly after Indian Independence in 1947.
• Jalore Fort: One of the most important structures within the town is the Topekhana or "the cannon foundry". It was built by "Ujjain King" Vkramditya as a "sansrut Pathshala" for education for his public.But at the time of Muslin Emperor Ala ud din Khilji converted into a Muslim monument. 
• Malik Shah's mosque, Sire Mandir at Jalore, Jain temples built in the 8th century
• There is an old Shiva temple, a temple devoted to Lord Shiva. It was built by Kanhaddev Ruler of Jalore. Same was renovated by Mah Singh Ruler of Jodhpur and built a Samadhi Mandir of Shri Jalandharnath

 (9) Jammu

(10) Janjira 

(11) Jaora

• The state was founded by 'Abdu'l Ghafur Muhammad Khan of Afghan descent. He was a cavalry officer serving the Pindari leader Amir Khan. He later served the Holkar maharaja of Indore, subduing Rajput territories in northern Malwa and annexing their lands. In return for his services, he was granted the title of Nawab in 1808. The state was confirmed by the British government in 1818 by the Treaty of Mandsaur.

(12) Jatinga-Rameshwar

• Jatinga-Rameshwar(Minor Rock Edict) lies about three miles from Brahmagiri and the inscription belongs to the Mysore group. It might originally have been a place of religious interest since the inscription is within the precincts of the present Jatinga-Rameshwar temple.

(13) Jaugada / Jaugarh (Ancient name: Samapa)

• Once a provincial Mauryan fortified capital of the newly conquered province of Kalinga, Jaugada is famed by its version of the monumental stone-cut edicts in Prakrit of the Mauryan emperor Ashoka.  
• JAUGADA (Major Rock Edicts, similar to the Dhauli version).The inclusion of the two Separate Edicts among the Jaugada series would point to its being within Kalinga. It is now a ruined fort in the Behrampur taluka of the Ganjam district. It is situated on the northern bank of the Rishikulya river. The two Separate Edicts are addressed to the mahamattas of Samapa.The presence of the fort might point to its having been a military centre. Its proximity to the sea may have given it the added advantage of trade and maritime activities.  

(14) Jaunpur 

• Jaunpur historically known as Sheeraz-e-Hind having its historical dates from 1359, when the city was founded by the Sultan of Delhi Feroz Shah Tughlaq and named in memory of his cousin, Muhammad bin Tughluq, whose given name was Jauna Khan.In 1388, Feroz Shah Tughlaq appointed Malik Sarwar, a eunuch, as the governor of the region. The Sultanate was in disarray because of factional fighting for power, and in 1393 Malik Sarwar declared independence. He and his adopted son Mubarak Shah founded what came to be known as the Sharqi dynasty (dynasty of the East). During the Sharqi period the Jaunpur Sultanate was a strong military power in Northern India, and on several occasions threatened the Delhi Sultanate.

Silver coin of 32 rattis issued by Ibrahim Shah of Jaunpur.

• The Jaunpur Sultanate attained its greatest height under the younger brother of Mubarak Shah, who ruled as Shams-ud-din Ibrahim Shah (ruled 1402-1440). To the east, his kingdom extended to Bihar, and to the west, to Kanauj; he even marched on Delhi at one point. Under the aegis of a Muslim holy man named Qutb al-Alam, he threatened the Sultanate of Bengal under Raja Ganesha. 
• During the reign of Husain Shah (1456–76), Husain decided to attempt a conquest of Delhi. However, he was defeated on three successive attempts by Bahlul Khan Lodi. Finally, under Sikandar Lodi, the Delhi Sultante was able to reconquer Jaunpur in 1493, bringing that sultanate to an end. 
• The Jaunpur Sultanate was a major center of Urdu and Sufi knowledge and culture. The Sharqi dynasty was known for its excellent communal relations between Muslims and Hindus, perhaps stemming from the fact that the Sharqis themselves were originally indigenous converts to Islam, as opposed to descendants of Persians or Afghans.  
• Although many of the Sharqi monuments were destroyed when the Lodis took the city, several important mosques remain, most notably the Atala Masjid, Jama Masjid (now known as the Bari (big mosque) Masjid) and the Lal Darwaza Masjid. The Jaunpur mosques display a unique architectural style, combining traditional Hindu and Muslim motifs with purely original elements. The old bridge over the Gomti River in Jaunpur dates from 1564, the era of Akbar. The Jaunpur Qila, a fortress from the Tughlaq era, also remains in ruined form.

(15)Jayanagar

(16) Jhansi 

• Jhansi ka Kila is a fortress situated on a large hilltop called Bangira, in Uttar Pradesh, Northern India. It served as a stronghold of the Chandela Kingsin Balwant Nagar from the 11th through the 17th century. 
• In the 18th century the town of Jhansi served as the capital of a Maratha province and later the Princely State of Jhansi from 1804 till 1853 when the territory became a part of British India. 

(17) Jhinjhana

• Jhinjhana is an ancient habitat center of region. The Town is full of historical buildings such as the Neela Roza, a historical mosque built by emperor Jahangir in Mughal era. There is a Mazar-e-shareef of Hazrat Shah Abdul Razzaq adjacent to Neela Roza. Mazar of Hazrat Imamsahab also famous shrine of both communities (Hindu and Muslim). Town has several old Havallies and remains of historical buildings. Architect of some buildings of British period architect is state of art and outer walls contain handmade paintings showing the custom and traditions of that time. . 

(18) Jhukar

Jhukar in deep yellow.

• The Jhukar Phase followed the Harappa Culture around the middle of the 2nd millennium BC.It, in turn, was followed by the Jhangar Phase.
• A post-Harappan archaeological culture of about the 16th-15th century B.C. at the village of Jhukar, on the territory of the province of Sind (Pakistan). The culture has been observed on insufficient territory and, therefore, the question of its origin has not yet been resolved. 
• Two-color pottery similar to Baluchistan types is characteristic of the Jhukar culture as are the distinctive seals made from stone, faience, and clay. 
• Excavations in Chanhu-Daro have established a certain time interval between the Harappan and Jhukar cultures. Many identify the bearers of the Jhukar culture with the Aryans, a conclusion which many objection. The definite affinity of Jhukar to certain Baluchi archaeological cultures links it to the ancient tribes of Baluchistan.

(19) Jind

• Raja Gajpat Singh of the Phulkian Misl, established an independent kingdom by seizing a large tract of country which included the territory occupied by the present district of Jind from the Afghan governor Zain Khan in 1763 and made Jind city, the capital of the state in 1776. He made a fort here in 1775. Later, Sangrur was chosen as capital of Jind State by Raja Sangat Singh (reigned 1822 to 1834)

(20) Jinji (Same as Gingee in Part-G)

(21) Jodhpur 

• The city is known as the "Sun City" for the bright, sunny weather it enjoys all the year round. It is also referred to as the "Blue City" due to the vivid blue-painted houses around the Mehrangarh Fort. The old city circles the fort and is bounded by a wall with several gates.
• Jodhpur was founded in 1459 by Rao Jodha, a Rajput chief of the Rathore clan. Jodha founded a state Marwar.
• The city was located on the strategic road linking Delhi to Gujarat. This enabled it to profit from a flourishing trade in opium, copper, silk,sandals, date palms and coffee.
• Early in its history, the state became a fief under the Mughal Empire, owing fealty to them while enjoying some internal autonomy. During this period, the state furnished the Mughals with several notable generals such as Maharaja Jaswant Singh.
• Jodhpur and its people benefited from this exposure to the wider world: new styles of art and architecture made their appearance and opportunities opened up for local tradesmen to make their mark across northern India.
• Mehrangarh Fort located in Jodhpur, Rajasthan, is one of the largest forts in India.This Gallery displays colours of Marwar-Jodhpur, the finest example of Marwar paintings.

(22) Jodhpura

• Jodhpur on the bank of river Sahibi, is the first site where evidence of the Ganeshwar-Jodhpura culture(almost 3000BCE) was identified. The typical pottery here is wheel made,orange to red in color, with incised designs.Shapes include dish-on-stand. Pottery similar to Jodhpura was discovered in Ganeshwar.

(23) Jorwe 

• Jorwe is a village and an archaeological site located on the Pravara, a tributary of the Godavari River of Ahmednagar district. 
• In the middle of the second millennium (c. 1500 BCE), the Jorwe culture, a Deccan Chalcolithic culture,flourished in the whole of Maharashtra, except the districts in Konkan and certain parts of Vidarbha. 
• As in the preceding culture, it was characterised by a distinct type of painted pottery, a blade-flake industry of chalcedony, as well as tools and ornaments of copper. However, due to the scarcity of the metal, copper was used sparingly. Their mixed economy was based on agriculture, stock-raising, hunting and fishing. They cultivated a variety of crops, including cereals. They practised crop rotation because it gave them the facility of irrigation - clear evidence of that has been unearthed at Inamgaon, near Pune.  
• Large rectangular houses with wattle and daub walls and thatched roofs. They stored grain in bins and pit silos, cooked food in two armed chulas (hearths) inside the house and roasted animals in a large fire pit in the courtyard. 
• They worshipped a mother goddess associated with fertility and another headless deity. 
• They believed in life after death, and therefore interred the dead inside the house under the floor. Children were buried in two urns that were joined mouth-to-mouth and set horizontally in the pit, while adults were placed in a supine position with the head towards the North. Before the ceremonial burial, the feet were chopped off, possibly because of the fear of the dead turning into ghosts.

(24) Junagarh/Girnar -(See Girnar in Part-G)

(25) Junapani

• The stone circles of Junapani are prehistoric megalithic circles (dated from 1000 BC to 300 AD)in Junapani, near Nagpur, yielding a variety of iron objects including daggers, flat axes with cross-ring fasteners, hoes, rings, bracelets, horse bits, chisels with long blades, and pointed tongs.These circles have nothing in common with the menhirs, dolmens and other non-sepulchral and sepulchral megalithic structures of South India. 
• Junapani is the second largest site, with 150 stone circles of megalithic period, out of 51 sites around Nagpur Region, and 89 in the Vidharba Region.The stone circles of Junapani is an uninhabited burial site containing Sepulchral megaliths with remains of the dead. It forms the northern fringe of central India's megalith distribution. A skeleton of horse family was also found.
• A copper bell with iron tongue was located in one of the circles.In three circles excavated, heaps of sticky black clay was found heaped around the funerary finds. Iron implements ,stone pestle has also been reported,Middle Stone Age tools were found here.
• A notable feature is the cup-marked stones(Cup marks/cupules are one of the earliest known forms of Prehistoric rock art.) in the circles which seem to suggest an astronomical significance. This aspect has been discerned from the fact that the cup-marked stones are fixed at specific locations denoting specific directions. 
• The funerary antiquaries at this megalithic burial site are painted red pottery (a few with Megalithic Graffiti Symbols), micaceous red and the coarse red ware. These finds are identical to similar finds from other locations in the region such as from Kaundinyapura, Paunar, Takalghat and Khapa, west of Nagpur.There is evidence of black and red pottery, such as bowls featuring linear paintings in black.

(26) Junnar
 

• Junnar is a city with thousands of years of history in the Pune district.
• In 90 B.C king Vedishri son of the Satavahana king Satakarni, the "Lord of Dakshinapatha" made Junnar the capital of his kingdom.
• Surroundings of Junnar are ancient cave temples. More than 200 individual rock-cut caves located in four hills around Junnar. The largest and best known group is Lenyadri Caves. Other groups of ancient temples are Tuljalena, Manmodi and Sivaneri.  
• The ancient Naneghat caves situated here.The inscriptions in the caves indicate that they are the work of Satavahana rulers who came into prominence after the fall of the Mauryan empire.It is believed that a woman ruler Naganika, the wife of Satakarni (180–170 BCE) of the Satavahana family commissioned the cave, the statues and the inscriptions. Inscriptions in the cave mention her and her family members and acheivements. The Naneghat records have proved very important in establishing the history of the region. Vedic Gods (Yama, Indra, Chandra and Surya) are mentioned. The mention of Samkarsana and Vasudeva indicate the prevalence of Bhagavata form of Hinduism in the Satavahana dynasty. Very beautiful temple of Ganesha in cave is found here.



Shivneri Fort

• Shivneri Fort is a 17th-century military fortification located near Junnar. It is the birthplace of Chhatrapati Shivaji, the founder of Maratha Empir.

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The Geographical Locations of The Rock Edicts of Asoka:

• THE locations of the edicts are of geographical importance, as the selection of their sites was not arbitrary. They were deliberately placed either near habitations, or on important travel routes, or at places of religious interest, thereby ensuring that they would be available to as many people as possible. In south India, the area within which most of the edicts have been found tallies closely with the gold-mining area of the south. The Arthasastra mentions this activity in the south, and speaks of gold as a special commodity of trade with the south.The inscriptions were probably situated in the well-inhabited mining areas or along the main routes to this area. 

(1)AHRAURA

• The site lies 23 miles south of present day Banaras. It was probably on the route from Magadba to the west coast, as were Sabasr Amand Rupanath. 

(2)ALLAHABAD-KOSAM (Pillar Edicts I-VI, the Queen's Edict, and the Kausambi Edict or Schism Edict)

• The importance of Allahabad was largely due to its being a pilgrim centre. It lay on what was then a great sandy plain between the two rivers, the Ganges and the Yamuna. 
• Hsuan Tsang describes it as a place sacred to Hindus and relates many legends regarding its temples. Since the Kausambi Edict is directed to the mahamattas of Kausambi, this pillar was originally situated at the latter site. Kausambi having been a place of religious importance in Buddhist times may well have attracted pilgrims from various parts of the country and would therefore have been an excellent site for the edicts. 
• The Asokan pillar was inscribed on, at later period by various rulers including Samudragupta and Jahangir. It would appear from Samudragupta's inscription that the pillar was still at Kausambi during the Gupta period. Probably Jahangir was responsible for its removal to the fort at Allahabad, which he did in imitation of Firoz Shah, who had brought similar pillars from Topra and Meerut to Delhi. Both Allahabad and Kausambi being on the river Yamuna, the transportation of the pillar would not have been too difficult. 

(3)BAIRAT(Minor Rock Edict and the Bhabra Edict)

• Bairat is located in Rajasthan, forty-two miles north-east of Jaipur. It has been identified with Viratathe capital of the Matsya state. The presence of the Bhabra Edict addressed specifically to the Sangha is explained by the fact that the remains of two monasteries have been discovered on a hill. Excavations in the region revealed a brick chamber resembling a stupa. It may have been an early Buddhist shrine of a period prior to the emergence of the stupa as a regular Buddhist feature. This points to Bairat being an old and established centre of Buddhism.It was thus both a centre of religious activity and an important city of the region, with a large population. 

(4)BARABAR HILL CAVES (Donatory inscriptions to the Ajivika sect)

• The inscriptions in these caves are donatory, and therefore their significance does not rest in the particular importance of their site. The caves were in a group of hills girdling the city of Rajagrha.

(5)BRAHMAGIRI(Minor Rock Inscription)

• Excavations revealed Brahmagiri having been an important centre in south India even well before the Mauryan period.Continual habitation for many hundreds of years resulted in its emerging as an influential town, particularly after it had become one of the southern outposts of the Mauryan empire. It may also have been the starting point of pilgrimages to the sources of the two rivers, Godavari and Kaveri. 

(6)DELHI-MEERUT and DELHI-TOPRA (Pillar Edict, I-VI and I-VII respectively)

• The Delhi-Meerut and the Delhi-Topra pillars are so called because they were transported to Delhi by Firoz Shah from their original sites at Meerutand Topra. Both these places lie to the north-west of Delhi.It would appear that both sites were important stopping places on the road from Pataliputra to the north-west. If there were caravan serals at these two points no doubt a fairly large habitation must have grown up around them. 

(7)DHAULI (Major Rock Edicts)

• The Dhauli inscription has been cut high on a rock in a group of hills.The site has been identified with Tosali which is mentioned by Ptolemy as a metropolis. It was situated near the sacred pool of Kosala-Ganga and thus developed into a religious centre as well.

(8)GAVIMATH (Minor Rock Edict) 

• Gavimath is situated in modem Mysore and is one among the group of places in the neighbourhood of Siddapur where this edict is found with great frequency. Its importance may have been largely due to its being a mining area or on an important route. 

(9)GIRNAR (Major Rock Edicts)

• The importance of Girnar is not difficult to account for. It is situated one mile to the east of Junagarh in Kathiawar. That it was a site of immense importance is amply proved by the number of major inscriptions to be found there, including apart from those of Asoka,those of Rudradaman and Skandagupta. It is mentioned as Girinagar in the Brhat Samhita. 
• By tradition the mountain is regarded as sacred both to Brahmans and Jainas. 
• Its importance was increased by the fact that during the reign of Candragupta a dam was constructed on the Sudarsana lake in the neighbourhood of Girnar. The Rudradaman inscription informs us that the lake was originally built by Pusyagupta the provincial governor of Candragupta. Subsequently conduits were worked from it by Tusaspa in the reign of Asoka.It refers to the town of Girinagar in the vicinity. 
• It appears from the inscription of Skandagupta that the lake continued to supply water to the surrounding area until well into the Gupta period, eight hundred years later.Since it was the source of water for irrigation it must have been the focal point in the area. 
• It is possible that in the Asokan period the city of Girnar was closer to the lake than is the present site of Junagadh,since it would have been more practical to build the city as near the water supply as possible. Thus the hill on which the inscription was engraved was the centre of considerable activity. 

(10)GUJARRA (Minor Rock Edict)

• Gujarra is located near Jhansi in the Datia district. It appears to have been on one of the more important routes from the Ganges valley to the west coast, possibly via Ujjain to Broach. 

(11)JATINGA-RAMESHWAR (Minor Rock Edict)

• This site lies about three miles from Brahmagiri and the inscription belongs to the Mysore group. It might originally have been a place of religious interest since the inscription is within the precincts of the present Jatinga-Rameshwar temple. 

(12)JAUGADA (Major Rock Edicts, similar to the Dhauli version)

• The inclusion of the two Separate Edicts among the Jaugada series wouldpoint to its being within Kalinga. It is now a ruined fort in theBehrampur taluka of the Ganjam district. It is situated on the northernbank of the Rishikulya river. The two Separate Edicts are addressed tothe mahamattas of Samapa, which was probably the name of the town inthe Mauryan period. The area covered by the ruins would suggest thatthe town must have been a fairly large one, and the presence of thefort might point to its having been a military centre. Its proximity tothe sea may have given it the added advantage of trade and maritime activities. 

KALSI (Major Rock Edicts). The town of Kalsi lies at thejunction of theTons and Yamuna rivers, which in itself would give it religioussignificance. Recent excavations at the site have revealed a brickaltar inscribed with Sanskrit verses placed almost opposite the rock inscription. The altar marked the site of the fourth aivamedhaof King Ailayarman during the third century A.D., indicatingthereby that the site was of some significance during that period. Thesection of the Ganges plain lying between the foot-bilb of theHimalayas and DelL has always been a strategic area. It controls theentrance to the plain extending farther east. The main artery fromnorth-west India to the east also runs through this region, a roadsystem which was constantly maintained by Indian rulers and which untilrecent years was called the Grand Trunk Road. KiWi being in the lowerhills of the Himalayas was possibly the controlling centre of thisarea. It may also have bordered on the region inhabited by the Nibhaka tribes. 

KANDANAR(Bilingual Greek-Aramaic Inscription). The site of the inscription isShar-i-Quna, the old city of Kandahar in southern Afghanistan. It grewto importance with the establishment of trade between the Hellenicworld and north-west India after the campaigns of Alexander hadcatablishcd contact. Kandahar dominated the southern route from Indiato area farther west. The presence of a sizeable Greek-speakingpopulation is attested to by the fact that the edict is in Greek as well as Aramaic. 

LAMPAYA (AramaicInscription attributed to Asoka). The Lampaka Aramaic Inscription nowin the Kabul museum was found at the site of Lampaka or Lambakagenerally identified with the modern Lamghan on the northern bank of the Kabul river near Jalalabad. The inscription has been connected withthe Asokan period on the basis of the text referring to the setting up of a pillar inscription by Devanampiya. 

LAURIYA-ARARAJ(Pillar Edicts I-VI). The pillar is situated at this site in northernBibar. Its importance was probably due to the fact that the areawas associated with Buddhism and consequently had a religioussignificance. It has also been suggested that the pillars in this region marked the course of the royal road from Pataliputra to Nepal. 

LAURIYA-NANDANGARH(Pillar Edicts I-VI). This site is also in northern Bihar close to thevillage of Nandangarh and to the above site. Some funerary mounds havebeen discovered near the pillar which are believed to be of apre-Buddhist period, and it has been suggested that these may have beenthe ancient caityas of the Vrjjis referred to by theBuddha. Recent excavations at one of these mounds produced a mixture ofcontents, including punch-markedcoins, cast copper coins and terracotta figurines and clay sealings of the first century B.C. 

MAHASTHAN (Pre-Asokan Mauryan Inscription). The inscription was found at Mahasthangarh in the Bogra district of Bengal. The site was probably the headquarters of the local administrator (of the eastern section of the empire), its name during that period having been Pundranagara, as is mentioned in the inscription. The mahamatta of Pundranagarais described as being in charge of measures for famine relief. So far, excavations at the site have revealed terracottas of the Sunga period. 

MANSEHRA (Major Rock Edicts inscribed in Kharosthi). The site is that of a village in the Hazara district of the north-west province of Pakistan. The site lay on an important pilgrim route and was on the main road running from the north-west frontier to Pataliputra and beyond. It was probably also chosen because of its proximity to the northern border. 

MASKI (Minor Rock Edict). Maski is located in the Raichur district of Hyderabad. Anidentification of Maski with Suvarinagiri has been suggested but it isunacceptable as will be clear in the consideration of the location of Suvarnagiri. 

NIGALI-SAGAR (Pillar Inscription). The purpose of erecting apillar at Nigali-Sagar is clear from the inscription. It was originallysituated near the stupa of Buddha Konakarnana to recordfirst the enlargement of the stupa and later Asoka's visit to the site.Hsuan Tsang writes that he saw the pillar at the site of the Konakamanastupa, six miles from Kapilavastu, and that the pillar was surmounted by a carved lion.Neither the stupa nor the lion have so far been found,since the pillar has been removed from its original site. It is now near Rummindei, within Nepalese territory. 

PALKIGUNDU (Minor Rock Edict). Palkigundu lies at a distanceof four miles from Gavimath. This site again belongs to the group around Brahmagiri. 

PATALIPUTRA(it is mentioned in one of the edicts, but surprisingly noversion of any of the edicts has been found in the neighbourhood). Theidentificationof Pataliputra is certain and its geographical importance is wellknown.It was the capital of the Mauryan empire and at the time of Asoka had along history going back three centuries to the rise of Magadha. It isreferred to in literary sources both European and Indian and in theedicts of Asoka.Extensive excavations have shown that the city existed in certain sitesin and around modern Patna, probably by the river, the course of whichhaschanged somewhat through the centuries. These excavations haveunearthedthe wooden palisade which surrounded the city of Pataliputra and whichwas mentioned by Megasthenes. The pillared hall of the palace, similarin many ways to that of Persepolis and the arogya vihara(sanatorium) have also been found, including various smaller objectssuch as beads,terracottas, coins, and pottery of a type usually associated with theMauryan period. 

RAJULA-MANDAGIRI (Minor Rock Edict). This site is included in the southern group of inscriptions not far from Yerragudi. 

RAMPURYA (PillarEdicts I-VI). Rampurva is located thirty-two miles north of Bettiah innorthern Bihar. This area between the Ganges and the Himalayas, beingextremely fertile, was no doubt heavily populated and would thus be agood region for edicts. In addition many of the places sacred toBuddhism were in this area, and probably attracted pilgrims from all over the country. 

RUMMINDEI (Pillar Inscription). The Rummindei Pillar standsnear theshrine of Rurnmindei just within the border of Nepal. The pillar waserectedby Asoka to commemorate the birth-place of the Buddha, the Lumbinigrove.It is thought that the pillar locates the actual place, Rummindei beingthe modern name for Lumbini. According to Hsuan Tsang the pillar had ahorse capital which had been struck by lightning, and the pillar itselfhad broken in the middle. Today the lower shaft of the pillar stillstands, the upper part having been split into two. There is no trace of the capital. 

RUPANATH(Minor Rock Edict). The location of Rupanath is on the Kaimur hills near Saleemabad in Madhya Pradesh. The existence of a linganow makes it a sacred place to Saivites. It may have been of religiousimportance even in the Asokan period visited by Hindu pilgrims. It wasprobably also along an important route. The route from Allahabad(Prayaga) to Broach mustcertainly have passed via Rupanath. From Allahabad there is a rise overthe Kaimur hills. Thence to Jabulpur would be a fairly easy stretchalongthe top of the plateau. Jabulpur lies close to the Narmada and fromherethe route has merely to follow the valley of the Narmada, arrivingdirectlyat Broach. An alternative route to Jabulpur may have been fromPataliputra following the hills. This would explain in part the importance of Sahasram. 

SAHASRAM (Minor Rock Edict). It is located in the Shahabaddistrict of Bihar not far from the river Son, and ninety milessouth-west of Patna. Thesite of the inscription is not far from the modern town of Sahasram.Theedge of the Kaimur hills extends as far as this point. The existence ofa town here would confirm our view that there was a route from Patna,upthe Son valley, across the plateau to Jubbalpur and then down theNarmada valley to Broach. Sahasram would then be an important town on the northern edge of the plateau, the outpost of Magadha before therather uncertain journey across the plateau. 

SANCHI(Schism Edict). The modern name of Sanchi (or Sanci) was giventothe site at a comparatively late period, since it was known asKakanadabota, from the Buddhist period until that of the Guptas. Thefragmentary surviving inscription addressed to the dhamma-mahamattas andundoubtedly theSangha, would point to Sanchi being an important Buddhist centre eveninthe Asokan period. It is apparent from archaeological evidence that thestupa was enlarged and encased in its presentcovering during theSunga period. No doubt the nearness of Sanchi to Ujjain gave it addedimportance.It is located near Bhopal, a few miles from Bhilsa, believed to be theancient Vidisa. 

SARNATH (Pillar Inscription, Schism Edict addressed to the mahamattas).The location of Sarnath is three and a half miles fromBanares. This pillar is situated in a place of immense importance tothe Buddhists, since it was at Sarnath that Buddha preached his firstsermon. There appearsto have been an important monastery at Sarnath to the monks of whichthisedict was also directed. Hsuan Tsang writes that he saw the pillarcarrying the inscription in front of a stupa said to havebeen built byAsoka. Apart from its religious importance, Sarnath was an importantcentreof trade. Being on the banks of the Ganges it had a fair control overriver traffic, which in those days of small boats, and not many roadsmust have been of a considerable magnitude, despite the fact that thetown lay so farup the river. Its position midway between Prayaga (Allahabad) andPataliputra(Patna), meant that it must have acted as a point of exchange for goodscoming from either place. It appears to have been included among thetowns reached by the main road running from the north-west to Pataliputra. 

SHAHBAZGARHI(Major Rock Edicts, inscribed in Kharosthi). The position of this siteis near Mardan in the Yusufzai area of Peshawar. An attempt has beenmade to identify it with Arrian's description of Bazaria or Bazira.According to Hsuan Tsang who calls it Po-lu-sha, the town wasconstructed on the ruins of an ancient stone-built city, which wouldconfirm Arrian's description. The area around Shahbazgarhi has not yetbeen excavated, therefore there is no confirmation from archaeologicalsources. If there was a town at this site during the Asokan period, asseems very probable, it was regarded as a frontier town, although notactually on the frontier, with an importance similar to modern frontiertowns such as Peshawar. It would also have been linked to the main highway. 

SIDDAPUR(Minor Rock Edict). Siddapur lies one mile to the west of Brahmagiri,and three miles south of the location of the Jatinga-Rameshwarinscription. This group of inscriptions may have marked the southernboundary of the empire,in addition to their importance from other points of view which we have already considered. 

SOHGAURA (Copper-plate Inscription of the Mauryan period). Sohgaura is located in the Gorakhpur district of Uttar Pradesh. 

SOPARA (Major Rock Edict. Fragment of the 8th Edict). Sopara situated in the Thana district of Bombay is the site of air ancient sea-port and town,which no doubt was of importance during the reign of Asoka. It has been identified with the Soupara of Ptolemy, described as a commercial centre. Its ancient name was Supparaka. Sopara was an advantageous position for an inscription since being a sea-port, the edicts would be read by a constant stream of people coming and going. Furthermore,foreigners visiting the port would thus be made acquainted with the Dhamma of Asoka. 

SUVARNAGIRI(Minor Rock Edict). Suvarnagiri is the modern town of Kanakagiri south of Maski in Hyderabad. The word means 'golden mountain' and this has been connected with the ancient gold-mining area in Raichur which to this day shows traces of ancient gold workings. Suvarnagiri was the capital of the southern province of the empire. 

TAMRALIPTI. This Mauryan sea-port is generally identified with the modern Tamluk in the Midnapur district of Bengal. It was the principal port on the mouth of the Ganges. The chronicles from Ceylon refer to it as Timalitti. Fa-hsien writes that he embarked from Tamralipti for Ceylon. Hsuan Tsang records having seen some stupas built by Asoka at the same site. Apart from the sea traffic it controlled the river traffic going up the Ganges.Evidence of Mauryan occupation of Tamluk is available from archaeological remains as well. 

TAXILA. Taxila is mentioned frequently in the literary sources on the Asokan period. It was the capital of the northern province and one of the main cities of the empire.Archaeological remains indicate a high degree of craft and culture. The importance of Taxila can be accounted for by various reasons. Its long history of contact with regions to the west resulted in its becoming a cosmopolitan centre. It was noted as a place of learning and was the residence of well-known teachers. It was the meeting point of three major trade routes, the royal highway from Pataliputra, the northwestern route through Bactria, Kapisa, and Puskalavati (Peshawar),and the route from Kashmir and Central Asia, via Srinagar, Mansehra,and the Haripur valley. When the sea traffic with the West increased, the land route through Bactria and Peshawar became less important and this was one of the factors which led later to the decline of Taxila. 

UJJAIN. Ujjain was the capital of the western province of the empire. Apart from its political importance, it was, similar to Taxila, the meeting point of many routes. It was connected with the ports on the western coast,particularly Broach and Sopara and controlled much of the trade that passed through these ports. Some of the southern routes terminated at Ujjain,which was in turn linked with Pataliputra. Ptolemy refers to it as0zene.It was a Buddhist centre during the Mauryan period and judging by the importance of its monasteries, had a long history as such. An excavation of a mound at Kumhar Tekri four miles north-cast of Ujjain,reveals that it was a burial-cum-cremation ground dating back to before the third century B.C. Hsuan Tsang writes that not far from Ujjain was a stupa constructed on the site.

()YERRAGUDI (Major Rock Edicts and Minor Rock Edict).

• Yerragudi is situated eight miles from Gooty on the southern border of the Kurnool district, and is eighty miles north-east of Siddapur. Clearly it was a site of some significance since both the Major and the Minor Edicts are to be found here. A frontier town may have existed at the site, with a route leading through it to the south Indian kingdoms.