INDIAN HISTORY THROUGH MAP- PART-E,F

(1) Edakkal

• Edakkal is in Wayanad district of Kerala.The tallest mountain in the district,Ambukuthi mala, is located here.
• Three pre-historic caves known as the Edakkal Caves had been discovered on Ambukuthi mala. There are stone age pictorial writings on the walls of these natural caves. The older group of cave paintings and engravings, going back at least 7000 years, depict pre-historic tribal chieftains, elephants, queens and tools. A less ancient script from the 3rd or 4th century BC is also seen in the complex of caves.
• Above the caves one can get a view of the mountainous junction of the states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka.

(2) Ellichpur / Achalpur

• It is in Amravati district.Achalpur or Ellichpur is first mentioned authentically in the 13th century as one of the famous cities of the Deccan. Though tributary to the Muslim Delhi Sultanate after 1294, it remained under Hindu administration till 1318, when it came directly under the Muslim Delhi Sultanate.
• In 1294, Ala-uddin Khilji halted at Ellichpur for two days and from then marched towards Devagiri from where he carried off an enormous quantity of plunder.
• In 1347 Achalpur with the Berar region was ruled by the Bahmani Sultanate.
• In 1490 Imad-ul-Mulk proclaimed his independence and founded the Imad Shahi dynasty of the Berar Sultanate. He established his capital at Ellichpur. It was afterwards capital of the Berar Subah at intervals until the Mughal occupation
• As the Mughal empire deteriorated in the 18th century, Achalpur along with the rest of Berar came under the rule of the Nizam of Hyderabad.

(3) Ellora / Elapura

• Ellora is an archaeological site, 29 km North-West of the city of Aurangabad built by the Rashtrakuta dynasty.
• Ellora represents Indian rock-cut architecture. The 34 "caves" are actually structures excavated out of the vertical face of the Charanandri hills. 
• The Ellora caves, unlike Ajanta, were never lost. These caves were visited regularly. The earliest is that of the Arab geographer Al-Mas‘udi of the 10th century A.D. The others are by Firishta, Thevenot (1633–67), Niccolao Manucci (1653-1708), etc.
• Buddhist, Hindu and Jain rock-cut temples and viharas and mathas were built between the 5th century and 10th century during the rule of the Kalachuri, Chalukya and Rashtrakuta. 
• The Jagannatha Sabha , a group of five Jain cave temples of 9th century built by Rashtrakuta. The 12 Buddhist, 17 Hindu and 5 Jain caves, built in proximity, demonstrate the religious harmony prevalent during this period 
• These structures consist mostly of viharas or monasteries: large, multi-storeyed buildings carved into the mountain face, including living quarters, sleeping quarters, kitchens, and other rooms. Some of these monastery caves have shrines including carvings of Gautama Buddha, bodhisattvas and saints.

Buddhist Caves:

• Only chaitya griha of the Buddhist caves is cave 10 or Vishvakarma cave, or Carpenter's Cave with eight cells(700 AD). It follows the pattern of construction of Caves 19 and 26 of Ajanta. Beyond its multi-storeyed entry is a stupa hall also known as chaitya, whose ceiling has been carved. The main hall is apsidal on plan . In the apsidal end of the chaitya hall is a stupa on the face of which a seated Buddha in vyakhyana mudra (teaching posture) is carved. A large Bodhi tree is carved at the back. The hall has a vaulted roof in which ribs have been carved in the rock.
• Amongst other Buddhist caves, all of the first nine (caves 1–9) are monasteries. 
• The last two caves, Do Tal (cave 11) and Tin Tal (cave 12) have three stories.
• Figure1 is of Cave 10 and figure2 is of Cave12:

Hindu caves:

• Constructed between the middle of sixth century to the end of the eighth century. The early caves (caves 17–29) were constructed during the Kalachuri period. The caves 14, 15 and 16 were constructed during Rashtrakuta period.
• The Kailasanatha temple(Cave 16):

1. It is designed to recall Mount Kailash– looks like a free standing, multi-storeyed temple complex, but it was carved out of one single rock. 
2. A two-storeyed gateway resembling a South Indian Gopura opens to reveal a U-shaped courtyard. The courtyard is edged by columned galleries three storeys high. The galleries are punctuated by huge sculpted panels, and alcoves containing enormous sculptures of a variety of deities. 
3. Within the courtyard are three structures. As is traditional in Shiva temples, the first is a large image of the sacred bull Nandi in front of the central temple. The central temple - Nandi Mantapa or Mandapa - houses the Lingam. The Nandi Mandapa stands on 16 pillars. The base of the Nandi Mandapa has been carved to suggest that life-sized elephants are holding the structure aloft. A living rock bridge connects the Nandi Mandapa to the Shiva temple behind it. 
4. The temple itself is a tall pyramidal structure reminiscent of a South Indian Dravidian temple. The shrine – complete with pillars, windows, inner and outer rooms, gathering halls, and an enormous lingam at its heart as well as images of deities, mithunas (erotic male and female figures). 
5. Most of the deities at the left of the entrance are Shaivaite while on the right hand side the deities are Vaishnavaites. 
6. There are two Dhwajasthambha (pillars with flagstaff) with carved engravings in the courtyard(see figure below)..The grand sculpture of Ravana attempting to lift Mount Kailasa, the abode of Lord Shiva is a landmark in Indian art.
7. The temple is a splendid achievement of Rashtrakuta Karnata architecture. This project was started by Krishna I (757–773) of the Rashtrakuta dynasty. Its builders modelled it on the lines of the Virupaksha Temple in Pattadakal. Being a south Indian style temple, it does not have a shikhara common to north Indian temples.
8. The Great Kailasa (Cave 16) is attributed to Krishna I (757-83 A.D.), the successor of Dantidurga. A copper plate grant by Karka II (812-13 A.D.) narrates that a great edifice was built on a hill by Krishnaraja at Elapura (Ellora).

Different scenes of Kailash Temple: 

• The Dashavatara (Cave 15) was begun as a Buddhist monastery. It has an open court with a free-standing monolithic mandapa at the middle and a two-storeyed excavated temple at the rear. The layout of the temple is closely related to caves 11 and 12. Large sculptural panels between the wall columns on the upper floor, which include the ten avatars of Vishnu, depicting the death of Hiranyakashipu, where Vishnu in man-lion (Narasimha) form, emerges from a pillar, An inscription of grant of Dantidurga is found on the back wall of the front mandapa.
• Other Hindu caves: 

1. Rameshvara (Cave 21), which has figurines of river goddesses Ganga and Yamuna at the entrance 
2. Dhumar Lena (Cave 29) whose design is similar to the cave temple on Elephanta Island
3. Ravan ki Khai (Cave 14) 
4. Nilkantha (Cave 22)

Jain Caves:

• The five Jain caves(cave 30-34) at Ellora (ninth and tenth centuries) of Digambara sect.
• Jain caves reveal specific dimensions of Jain philosophy and tradition. They reflect a strict sense of asceticism – they present exceptionally detailed art works. 
• The most remarkable Jain shrines are :

1. Chhota Kailash (cave 30)
2. Indra Sabha(cave 32, two storeyed cave with one more monolithic shrine in its court,sculpture of the yaksha (dedicated attendant deity) seated on an elephant and image of yakshi Ambika, the yakshini of Neminath, seated on lion ) 
3. Jagannath Sabha (cave 33). Cave 31 is an unfinished four-pillared hall and a shrine.

Figure1: Yakshi in Cave 34 Figure2: A Jaina Cave 

• Amongst other devotional carvings, a place called Samavasarana can be found in Elora caves. Samavasarana is of special interest to Jains, as it is a hall where the tirthankara preaches after attaining omniscience.
• All other Jain caves are also characterized by intricate detailing. Many of the structures had rich paintings in the ceilings.

Geology of Ellora:

• Ancient volcanic activity in this area created many layered basalt formations, known as Deccan Traps. Its vertical face made access to many layers of rock formations easier, enabling architects to pick basalt with finer grains for more detailed sculpting.

Inscriptions at Ellora

• Several inscriptions from 6th century to 15th century: (1)Inscription of Rashtrakuta Dantidurga (753-57 A.D.). (2)Inscriptions on the Kailash temple range from 9th to 15th century. (3)Jain cave Jagannatha Sabha has 3 inscriptions that give the names of monks and donors. A Parshvanth temple on the hill has a 11th-century inscription that gives the name of the donor.

(4) Elephanta

• The Elephanta Caves (Marathi:Gharapurichya Lenee) are a network of sculpted caves located on Elephanta Island, or Gharapuri (literally "the city of caves") in Mumbai Harbour, consists of two groups of caves—the first is a large group of five Hindu caves, the second, a smaller group of two Buddhist caves. 
• The Hindu caves contain rock cut stone sculptures, representing the Shaiva Hindu sect, dedicated to the god Shiva.The rock cut architecture of the caves has been dated to between the 5th and 8th centuries.The caves are hewn from solid basalt rock. All the caves were also originally painted in the past, but now only traces remain.
• Since no inscriptions on any of the island have been discovered, the ancient history of the island is conjectural,Archaeological excavations have unearthed a few Kshatrapa coins dated to 4th century AD.
• The Chalukyas, who defeated the Kalacuris as well as the Konkan Mauryas, are also believed by some to be creators of the main cave, in the mid-7th century. The Rashtrakutas are the last claimants to the creation of the main cave, approximated to the early 7th to late 8th century. The Elephanta Shiva cave resembles in some aspects the 8th-century Rashtrakuta rock-temple Kailash at Ellora. The Trimurti of Elephanta showing the three faces of Shiva is akin to the Trinity of Brahma, Vishnu and Mahesh (Shiva), which was the royal insignia of the Rashtrakutas. The Nataraja and Ardhanarishvara sculptures are also attributed to the Rashtrakutas.
• Later, Elephanta was ruled by another Chalukyan dynasty, and then by Gujarat Sultanate, who surrendered it to the Portuguese in 1534. By then, Elephanta was called Gharapuri.The Portuguese named the island "Elephanta Island" in honour of a huge rock-cut black stone statue of an elephant that was then installed on a mound.
• 

Layout:

Main Hall 1. Ravana lifting Kailash 2. Shiva-Parvati on Kailash 3. Ardhanarishvara 4. Trimurti 5. Gangadhara 6. Wedding of Shiva 7. Shiva slaying Andhaka 8. Nataraja 9. Yogishvara 16. Linga

East Wing Shrine 10. Kartikeya 11. Matrikas 12. Ganesha 13. Dvarapala West Wing Shrine 14. Yogishvara 15. Nataraja

The main cave/Shiva cave/Cave 1/Great Cave: 

Left top clockwise: 1. Trimurti 2. Kalyanasundara: the divine marriage of Shiva and Parvati with Brahma, Vishnu, Indra, and other divinities in attendance.3. Shiva slaying Andhaka4. Shiva as Yogisvara, doing penance.5. The four-armed doorkeeper 6. Ardhanarishvara (center) at Elephanta caves. Note the sculpture's left is female and the right is male, depicting Shiva and his consort Parvati.

1.Cave 1 east entrance (right door) middle courtyard connecting the east-end cave (left door).2.Shiva Linga shrine and Dvarapalas at door entry.3. the leogriff figure

Left top clockwise: 1. Shiva and Parvati on Mount Kailasha..2.Gangadhara Shiva (right) with part of the Trimurti and a guardian (left). 3.Shiva as Nataraja (Cosmic dancer) 4. Ravana shaking Mount Kailash

• At the entrance are four doors, Pillars six in each row, divide the hall into a series of smaller chambers. The roof of the hall has concealed beams supported by stone columns joined together by capitals. The cave entrance is aligned with the north–south axis, unusual for a Shiva shrine (normally east–west). 
• The northern entrance to the cave,is flanked by two panels of Shiva dated to the Gupta period. The left panel depicts Yogishvara (The Lord of Yoga) and the right shows Nataraja (Shiva as the Lord of Dance). The central Shiva shrine (see 16 in plan below) is a free-standing square cell with four entrances, located in the right section of the main hall. Smaller shrines are located at the east and west ends of the caves. Each wall has large carvings of Shiva. The central Shiva relief Trimurti(It is also known as Trimurti Sadashiva and Maheshmurti. The image depicts a three-headed Shiva, representing Panchamukha Shiva.The three heads are said to represent three essential aspects of Shiva: creation, protection, and destruction.) is located on the south wall and is flanked by Ardhanarisvara (a half-man, half-woman representation of Shiva) on its left and Gangadhara to its right, which denotes the River Ganges' descent from Shiva's matted locks. Other carvings related to the legend of Shiva are also seen in the main hall at strategic locations in exclusive cubicles; these include Kalyanasundaramurti, depicting Shiva's marriage to the goddess Parvati, Andhakasuravadamurti or Andhakasuramardana, the slaying of the demon Andhaka by Shiva, Shiva-Parvati on Mount Kailash (the abode of Shiva), and Ravananugraha, depicting the demon-king Ravana shaking Kailash..The main cave blends Chalukyan architectural features such as massive figures of the divinities, guardians, and square pillars with custom capitals with Gupta artistic characteristics, like the depiction of mountains and clouds and female hairstyles.

(5) Eran

• In Sagar district in Madhya Pradesh.From an early inscription at Sanchi we know that the residents of Eran had made some gifts to the Stupa of Sanchi. This city was under Gupta empire.
• Eran is the site of first reported monument of Sati dated 510 AD in India. The archaeological site nearby Eran has revealed several Gupta inscriptions. In addition to this various Sati Pillars ranging from Early Medieval Period to the Modern Period have been noticed in Eran. The Saka Samvat is used in all Sati Pillars.
• The site had a number of Vishnu shrines but only some remains.

  

  1.Vishnu temple at Eran with Varah.2.Vishnu temple mandapa at Eran

(6) Ernakulam 

• Starting from the Stone Age, Ernakulam has been the site of human settlement. Monolithic monuments like Dolmens and rock-cut caves can be seen in many parts of Ernakulam

(7) Erragudi / Yerragudi

• Major and Minor Rock Edict of Ashoka near Kurnool district, A.P.